Natural Language Processing Archives

Tag Archive for: Natural Language Processing

Monitoring of Jobskills with Data Engineering & AI

June 30, 2023/in Artificial Intelligence, Business Intelligence, Carrier, Data Engineering, Data Mining, Data Science, Deep Learning, Gerneral, Insights, Machine Learning, Main Category, Natural Language Processing, Visualization/by Benjamin Aunkofer

On own account, we from DATANOMIQ have created a web application that monitors data about job postings related to Data & AI from multiple sources (Indeed.com, Google Jobs, Stepstone.de and more).

The data is obtained from the Internet via APIs and web scraping, and the job titles and the skills listed in them are identified and extracted from them using Natural Language Processing (NLP) or more specific from Named-Entity Recognition (NER).

The skill clusters are formed via the discipline of Topic Modelling, a method from unsupervised machine learning, which show the differences in the distribution of requirements between them.

DATANOMIQ Webapp for Monitoring of Skills demanded in the German Job Market.

DATANOMIQ Jobskills Webapp

The whole web app is hosted and deployed on the Microsoft Azure Cloud via CI/CD and Infrastructure as Code (IaC).

The presentation is currently limited to the current situation on the labor market. However, we collect these over time and will make trends secure, for example how the demand for Python, SQL or specific tools such as dbt or Power BI changes.

Why we did it? It is a nice show-case many people are interested in. Over the time, it will provides you the answer on your questions related to which tool to learn! For DATANOMIQ this is a show-case of the coming Data as a Service (DaaS) Business.

Wie Maschinen uns verstehen: Natural Language Understanding

June 3, 2022/in Artificial Intelligence, Data Mining, Data Science, Deep Learning, Insights, Machine Learning, Main Category, Natural Language Processing/by Niklas Lang

Foto von Sebastian Bill auf Unsplash.

Natural Language Understanding (NLU) ist ein Teilbereich von Computer Science, der sich damit beschäftigt natürliche Sprache, also beispielsweise Texte oder Sprachaufnahmen, verstehen und verarbeiten zu können. Das Ziel ist es, dass eine Maschine in der gleichen Weise mit Menschen kommunizieren kann, wie es Menschen untereinander bereits seit Jahrhunderten tun.

Was sind die Bereiche von NLU?

Eine neue Sprache zu erlernen ist auch für uns Menschen nicht einfach und erfordert viel Zeit und Durchhaltevermögen. Wenn eine Maschine natürliche Sprache erlernen will, ist es nicht anders. Deshalb haben sich einige Teilbereiche innerhalb des Natural Language Understandings herausgebildet, die notwendig sind, damit Sprache komplett verstanden werden kann.

Diese Unterteilungen können auch unabhängig voneinander genutzt werden, um einzelne Aufgaben zu lösen:

Speech Recognition versucht aufgezeichnete Sprache zu verstehen und in textuelle Informationen umzuwandeln. Das macht es für nachgeschaltete Algorithmen einfacher die Sprache zu verarbeiten. Speech Recognition kann jedoch auch alleinstehend genutzt werden, beispielsweise um Diktate oder Vorlesungen in Text zu verwandeln.
Part of Speech Tagging wird genutzt, um die grammatikalische Zusammensetzung eines Satzes zu erkennen und die einzelnen Satzbestandteile zu markieren.
Named Entity Recognition versucht innerhalb eines Textes Wörter und Satzbausteine zu finden, die einer vordefinierten Klasse zugeordnet werden können. So können dann zum Beispiel alle Phrasen in einem Textabschnitt markiert werden, die einen Personennamen enthalten oder eine Zeit ausdrücken.
Sentiment Analysis klassifiziert das Sentiment, also die Gefühlslage, eines Textes in verschiedene Stufen. Dadurch kann beispielsweise automatisiert erkannt werden, ob eine Produktbewertung eher positiv oder eher negativ ist.
Natural Language Generation ist eine allgemeine Gruppe von Anwendungen mithilfe derer automatisiert neue Texte generiert werden sollen, die möglichst natürlich klingen. Zum Beispiel können mithilfe von kurzen Produkttexten ganze Marketingbeschreibungen dieses Produkts erstellt werden.

Welche Algorithmen nutzt man für NLP?

Die meisten, grundlegenden Anwendungen von NLP können mit den Python Modulen spaCy und NLTK umgesetzt werden. Diese Bibliotheken bieten weitreichende Modelle zur direkten Anwendung auf einen Text, ohne vorheriges Trainieren eines eigenen Algorithmus. Mit diesen Modulen ist ohne weiteres ein Part of Speech Tagging oder Named Entity Recognition in verschiedenen Sprachen möglich.

Der Hauptunterschied zwischen diesen beiden Bibliotheken ist die Ausrichtung. NLTK ist vor allem für Entwickler gedacht, die eine funktionierende Applikation mit Natural Language Processing Modulen erstellen wollen und dabei auf Performance und Interkompatibilität angewiesen sind. SpaCy hingegen versucht immer Funktionen bereitzustellen, die auf dem neuesten Stand der Literatur sind und macht dabei möglicherweise Einbußen bei der Performance.

Für umfangreichere und komplexere Anwendungen reichen jedoch diese Optionen nicht mehr aus, beispielsweise wenn man eine eigene Sentiment Analyse erstellen will. Je nach Anwendungsfall sind dafür noch allgemeine Machine Learning Modelle ausreichend, wie beispielsweise ein Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). Mithilfe von Tokenizern von spaCy oder NLTK können die einzelnen in Wörter in Zahlen umgewandelt werden, mit denen wiederum das CNN als Input arbeiten kann. Auf heutigen Computern sind solche Modelle mit kleinen Neuronalen Netzwerken noch schnell trainierbar und deren Einsatz sollte deshalb immer erst geprüft und möglicherweise auch getestet werden.

Jedoch gibt es auch Fälle in denen sogenannte Transformer Modelle benötigt werden, die im Bereich des Natural Language Processing aktuell state-of-the-art sind. Sie können inhaltliche Zusammenhänge in Texten besonders gut mit in die Aufgabe einbeziehen und liefern daher bessere Ergebnisse beispielsweise bei der Machine Translation oder bei Natural Language Generation. Jedoch sind diese Modelle sehr rechenintensiv und führen zu einer sehr langen Rechenzeit auf normalen Computern.

Was sind Transformer Modelle?

In der heutigen Machine Learning Literatur führt kein Weg mehr an Transformer Modellen aus dem Paper „Attention is all you need“ (Vaswani et al. (2017)) vorbei. Speziell im Bereich des Natural Language Processing sind die darin erstmals beschriebenen Transformer Modelle nicht mehr wegzudenken.

Transformer werden aktuell vor allem für Übersetzungsaufgaben genutzt, wie beispielsweise auch bei www.deepl.com. Darüber hinaus sind diese Modelle auch für weitere Anwendungsfälle innerhalb des Natural Language Understandings geeignet, wie bspw. das Beantworten von Fragen, Textzusammenfassung oder das Klassifizieren von Texten. Das GPT-2 Modell ist eine Implementierung von Transformern, dessen Anwendungen und die Ergebnisse man hier ausprobieren kann.

Was macht den Transformer so viel besser?

Soweit wir wissen, ist der Transformer jedoch das erste Transduktionsmodell, das sich ausschließlich auf die Selbstaufmerksamkeit (im Englischen: Self-Attention) stützt, um Repräsentationen seiner Eingabe und Ausgabe zu berechnen, ohne sequenzorientierte RNNs oder Faltung (im Englischen Convolution) zu verwenden.

Übersetzt aus dem englischen Originaltext: Attention is all you need (Vaswani et al. (2017)).

In verständlichem Deutsch bedeutet dies, dass das Transformer Modell die sogenannte Self-Attention nutzt, um für jedes Wort innerhalb eines Satzes die Beziehung zu den anderen Wörtern im gleichen Satz herauszufinden. Dafür müssen nicht, wie bisher, Recurrent Neural Networks oder Convolutional Neural Networks zum Einsatz kommen.

Was dieser Mechanismus konkret bewirkt und warum er so viel besser ist, als die vorherigen Ansätze wird im folgenden Beispiel deutlich. Dazu soll der folgende deutsche Satz mithilfe von Machine Learning ins Englische übersetzt werden:

„Das Mädchen hat das Auto nicht gesehen, weil es zu müde war.“

Für einen Computer ist diese Aufgabe leider nicht so einfach, wie für uns Menschen. Die Schwierigkeit an diesem Satz ist das kleine Wort „es“, dass theoretisch für das Mädchen oder das Auto stehen könnte. Aus dem Kontext wird jedoch deutlich, dass das Mädchen gemeint ist. Und hier ist der Knackpunkt: der Kontext. Wie programmieren wir einen Algorithmus, der den Kontext einer Sequenz versteht?

Vor Veröffentlichung des Papers „Attention is all you need“ waren sogenannte Recurrent Neural Networks die state-of-the-art Technologie für solche Fragestellungen. Diese Netzwerke verarbeiten Wort für Wort eines Satzes. Bis man also bei dem Wort „es“ angekommen ist, müssen erst alle vorherigen Wörter verarbeitet worden sein. Dies führt dazu, dass nur noch wenig Information des Wortes „Mädchen“ im Netzwerk vorhanden sind bis den Algorithmus überhaupt bei dem Wort „es“ angekommen ist. Die vorhergegangenen Worte „weil“ und „gesehen“ sind zu diesem Zeitpunkt noch deutlich stärker im Bewusstsein des Algorithmus. Es besteht also das Problem, dass Abhängigkeiten innerhalb eines Satzes verloren gehen, wenn sie sehr weit auseinander liegen.

Was machen Transformer Modelle anders? Diese Algorithmen prozessieren den kompletten Satz gleichzeitig und gehen nicht Wort für Wort vor. Sobald der Algorithmus das Wort „es“ in unserem Beispiel übersetzen will, wird zuerst die sogenannte Self-Attention Layer durchlaufen. Diese hilft dem Programm andere Wörter innerhalb des Satzes zu erkennen, die helfen könnten das Wort „es“ zu übersetzen. In unserem Beispiel werden die meisten Wörter innerhalb des Satzes einen niedrigen Wert für die Attention haben und das Wort Mädchen einen hohen Wert. Dadurch ist der Kontext des Satzes bei der Übersetzung erhalten geblieben.

Multi-head attention mechanism: “queries”, “keys”, and “values,” over and over again

April 7, 2021/in Artificial Intelligence, Data Mining, Data Science, Data Science Hack, Deep Learning, Machine Learning, Main Category, Predictive Analytics, Python, Tutorial, Use Case/by Yasuto Tamura

*A comment added on 04/05/2022: Thanks to a comment by Mr. Maier, I found a major mistake in my visualization. To be concrete, there is a mistake in expressing how to get each colored divided group of tokens by applying linear transformations. That corresponds to the section 3.2.2 in the paper “Attention Is All You Need.” There would be no big differences in the main point of this article, the relations of keys, queries, and values, but please bear that in your mind if you need Transformer at a practical work. Besides checking the implementation by Tensorflow, I will soon prepare a modified version of visualization. For further details, please see comments at the bottom of this article.

This is the third article of my article series named “Instructions on Transformer for people outside NLP field, but with examples of NLP.”

In the last article, I explained how attention mechanism works in simple seq2seq models with RNNs, and it basically calculates correspondences of the hidden state at every time step, with all the outputs of the encoder. However I would say the attention mechanisms of RNN seq2seq models use only one standard for comparing them. Using only one standard is not enough for understanding languages, especially when you learn a foreign language. You would sometimes find it difficult to explain how to translate a word in your language to another language. Even if a pair of languages are very similar to each other, translating them cannot be simple switching of vocabulary. Usually a single token in one language is related to several tokens in the other language, and vice versa. How they correspond to each other depends on several criteria, for example “what”, “who”, “when”, “where”, “why”, and “how”. It is easy to imagine that you should compare tokens with several criteria.

Transformer model was first introduced in the original paper named “Attention Is All You Need,” and from the title you can easily see that attention mechanism plays important roles in this model. When you learn about Transformer model, you will see the figure below, which is used in the original paper on Transformer. This is the simplified overall structure of one layer of Transformer model, and you stack this layer N times. In one layer of Transformer, there are three multi-head attention, which are displayed as boxes in orange. These are the very parts which compare the tokens on several standards. I made the head article of this article series inspired by this multi-head attention mechanism.

The figure below is also from the original paper on Transfromer. If you can understand how multi-head attention mechanism works with the explanations in the paper, and if you have no troubles understanding the codes in the official Tensorflow tutorial, I have to say this article is not for you. However I bet that is not true of majority of people, and at least I need one article to clearly explain how multi-head attention works. Please keep it in mind that this article covers only the architectures of the two figures below. However multi-head attention mechanisms are crucial components of Transformer model, and throughout this article, you would not only see how they work but also get a little control over it at an implementation level.

1 Multi-head attention mechanism

When you learn Transformer model, I recommend you first to pay attention to multi-head attention. And when you learn multi-head attentions, before seeing what scaled dot-product attention is, you should understand the whole structure of multi-head attention, which is at the right side of the figure above. In order to calculate attentions with a “query”, as I said in the last article, “you compare the ‘query’ with the ‘keys’ and get scores/weights for the ‘values.’ Each score/weight is in short the relevance between the ‘query’ and each ‘key’. And you reweight the ‘values’ with the scores/weights, and take the summation of the reweighted ‘values’.” Sooner or later, you will notice I would be just repeating these phrases over and over again throughout this article, in several ways.

*Even if you are not sure what “reweighting” means in this context, please keep reading. I think you would little by little see what it means especially in the next section.

The overall process of calculating multi-head attention, displayed in the figure above, is as follows (Please just keep reading. Please do not think too much.): first you split the V: “values”, K: “keys”, and Q: “queries”, and second you transform those divided “values”, “keys”, and “queries” with densely connected layers (“Linear” in the figure). Next you calculate attention weights and reweight the “values” and take the summation of the reiweighted “values”, and you concatenate the resulting summations. At the end you pass the concatenated “values” through another densely connected layers. The mechanism of scaled dot-product attention is just a matter of how to concretely calculate those attentions and reweight the “values”.

*In the last article I briefly mentioned that “keys” and “queries” can be in the same language. They can even be the same sentence in the same language, and in this case the resulting attentions are called self-attentions, which we are mainly going to see. I think most people calculate “self-attentions” unconsciously when they speak. You constantly care about what “she”, “it” , “the”, or “that” refers to in you own sentence, and we can say self-attention is how these everyday processes is implemented.

Let’s see the whole process of calculating multi-head attention at a little abstract level. From now on, we consider an example of calculating multi-head self-attentions, where the input is a sentence “Anthony Hopkins admired Michael Bay as a great director.” In this example, the number of tokens is 9, and each token is encoded as a 512-dimensional embedding vector. And the number of heads is 8. In this case, as you can see in the figure below, the input sentence “Anthony Hopkins admired Michael Bay as a great director.” is implemented as a $9\times 512$ matrix. You first split each token into $512/8=64$ dimensional, 8 vectors in total, as I colored in the figure below. In other words, the input matrix is divided into 8 colored chunks, which are all $9\times 64$ matrices, but each colored matrix expresses the same sentence. And you calculate self-attentions of the input sentence independently in the 8 heads, and you reweight the “values” according to the attentions/weights. After this, you stack the sum of the reweighted “values” in each colored head, and you concatenate the stacked tokens of each colored head. The size of each colored chunk does not change even after reweighting the tokens. According to Ashish Vaswani, who invented Transformer model, each head compare “queries” and “keys” on each standard. If the a Transformer model has 4 layers with 8-head multi-head attention , at least its encoder has $4\times 8 = 32$ heads, so the encoder learn the relations of tokens of the input on 32 different standards.

I think you now have rough insight into how you calculate multi-head attentions. In the next section I am going to explain the process of reweighting the tokens, that is, I am finally going to explain what those colorful lines in the head image of this article series are.

*Each head is randomly initialized, so they learn to compare tokens with different criteria. The standards might be straightforward like “what” or “who”, or maybe much more complicated. In attention mechanisms in deep learning, you do not need feature engineering for setting such standards.

2 Calculating attentions and reweighting “values”

If you have read the last article or if you understand attention mechanism to some extent, you should already know that attention mechanism calculates attentions, or relevance between “queries” and “keys.” In the last article, I showed the idea of weights as a histogram, and in that case the “query” was the hidden state of the decoder at every time step, whereas the “keys” were the outputs of the encoder. In this section, I am going to explain attention mechanism in a more abstract way, and we consider comparing more general “tokens”, rather than concrete outputs of certain networks. In this section each $[ \cdots ]$ denotes a token, which is usually an embedding vector in practice.

Please remember this mantra of attention mechanism: “you compare the ‘query’ with the ‘keys’ and get scores/weights for the ‘values.’ Each score/weight is in short the relevance between the ‘query’ and each ‘key’. And you reweight the ‘values’ with the scores/weights, and take the summation of the reweighted ‘values’.” The figure below shows an overview of a case where “Michael” is a query. In this case you compare the query with the “keys”, that is, the input sentence “Anthony Hopkins admired Michael Bay as a great director.” and you get the histogram of attentions/weights. Importantly the sum of the weights 1. With the attentions you have just calculated, you can reweight the “values,” which also denote the same input sentence. After that you can finally take a summation of the reweighted values. And you use this summation.

*I have been repeating the phrase “reweighting ‘values’ with attentions,” but you in practice calculate the sum of those reweighted “values.”

Assume that compared to the “query” token “Michael”, the weights of the “key” tokens “Anthony”, “Hopkins”, “admired”, “Michael”, “Bay”, “as”, “a”, “great”, and “director.” are respectively 0.06, 0.09, 0.05, 0.25, 0.18, 0.06, 0.09, 0.06, 0.15. In this case the sum of the reweighted token is 0.06″Anthony” + 0.09″Hopkins” + 0.05″admired” + 0.25″Michael” + 0.18″Bay” + 0.06″as” + 0.09″a” + 0.06″great” 0.15″director.”, and this sum is the what wee actually use.

*Of course the tokens are embedding vectors in practice. You calculate the reweighted vector in actual implementation.

You repeat this process for all the “queries.” As you can see in the figure below, you get summations of 9 pairs of reweighted “values” because you use every token of the input sentence “Anthony Hopkins admired Michael Bay as a great director.” as a “query.” You stack the sum of reweighted “values” like the matrix in purple in the figure below, and this is the output of a one head multi-head attention.

3 Scaled-dot product

This section is a only a matter of linear algebra. Maybe this is not even so sophisticated as linear algebra. You just have to do lots of Excel-like operations. A tutorial on Transformer by Jay Alammar is also a very nice study material to understand this topic with simpler examples. I tried my best so that you can clearly understand multi-head attention at a more mathematical level, and all you need to know in order to read this section is how to calculate products of matrices or vectors, which you would see in the first some pages of textbooks on linear algebra.

We have seen that in order to calculate multi-head attentions, we prepare 8 pairs of “queries”, “keys” , and “values”, which I showed in 8 different colors in the figure in the first section. We calculate attentions and reweight “values” independently in 8 different heads, and in each head the reweighted “values” are calculated with this very simple formula of scaled dot-product: $Attention(\boldsymbol{Q}, \boldsymbol{K}, \boldsymbol{V})$ $=softmax(\frac{\boldsymbol{Q} \boldsymbol{K} ^T}{\sqrt{d}_k})\boldsymbol{V}$ . Let’s take an example of calculating a scaled dot-product in the blue head.

At the left side of the figure below is a figure from the original paper on Transformer, which explains one-head of multi-head attention. If you have read through this article so far, the figure at the right side would be more straightforward to understand. You divide the input sentence into 8 chunks of matrices, and you independently put those chunks into eight head. In one head, you convert the input matrix by three different fully connected layers, which is “Linear” in the figure below, and prepare three matrices $Q, K, V$ , which are “queries”, “keys”, and “values” respectively.

*Whichever color attention heads are in, the processes are all the same.

*You divide $\frac{\boldsymbol{Q}} {\boldsymbol{K}^T}$ by $\sqrt{d}_k$ in the formula. According to the original paper, it is known that re-scaling $\frac{\boldsymbol{Q} }{\boldsymbol{K}^T}$ by $\sqrt{d}_k$ is found to be effective. I am not going to discuss why in this article.

As you can see in the figure below, calculating $Attention(\boldsymbol{Q}, \boldsymbol{K}, \boldsymbol{V})$ is virtually just multiplying three matrices with the same size (Only K is transposed though). The resulting $9\times 64$ matrix is the output of the head.

$softmax(\frac{\boldsymbol{Q} \boldsymbol{K} ^T}{\sqrt{d}_k})$ is calculated like in the figure below. The softmax function regularize each row of the re-scaled product $\frac{\boldsymbol{Q} \boldsymbol{K} ^T}{\sqrt{d}_k}$ , and the resulting $9\times 9$ matrix is a kind a heat map of self-attentions.

The process of comparing one “query” with “keys” is done with simple multiplication of a vector and a matrix, as you can see in the figure below. You can get a histogram of attentions for each query, and the resulting 9 dimensional vector is a list of attentions/weights, which is a list of blue circles in the figure below. That means, in Transformer model, you can compare a “query” and a “key” only by calculating an inner product. After re-scaling the vectors by dividing them with $\sqrt{d_k}$ and regularizing them with a softmax function, you stack those vectors, and the stacked vectors is the heat map of attentions.

You can reweight “values” with the heat map of self-attentions, with simple multiplication. It would be more straightforward if you consider a transposed scaled dot-product $\boldsymbol{V}^T \cdot softmax(\frac{\boldsymbol{Q} \boldsymbol{K} ^T}{\sqrt{d}_k})^T$ . This also should be easy to understand if you know basics of linear algebra.

One column of the resulting matrix ( $\boldsymbol{V}^T \cdot softmax(\frac{\boldsymbol{Q} \boldsymbol{K} ^T}{\sqrt{d}_k})^T$ ) can be calculated with a simple multiplication of a matrix and a vector, as you can see in the figure below. This corresponds to the process or “taking a summation of reweighted ‘values’,” which I have been repeating. And I would like you to remember that you got those weights (blue) circles by comparing a “query” with “keys.”

Again and again, let’s repeat the mantra of attention mechanism together: “you compare the ‘query’ with the ‘keys’ and get scores/weights for the ‘values.’ Each score/weight is in short the relevance between the ‘query’ and each ‘key’. And you reweight the ‘values’ with the scores/weights, and take the summation of the reweighted ‘values’.” If you have been patient enough to follow my explanations, I bet you have got a clear view on how multi-head attention mechanism works.

We have been seeing the case of the blue head, but you can do exactly the same procedures in every head, at the same time, and this is what enables parallelization of multi-head attention mechanism. You concatenate the outputs of all the heads, and you put the concatenated matrix through a fully connected layers.

If you are reading this article from the beginning, I think this section is also showing the same idea which I have repeated, and I bet more or less you no have clearer views on how multi-head attention mechanism works. In the next section we are going to see how this is implemented.

4 Tensorflow implementation of multi-head attention

Let’s see how multi-head attention is implemented in the Tensorflow official tutorial. If you have read through this article so far, this should not be so difficult. I also added codes for displaying heat maps of self attentions. With the codes in this Github page, you can display self-attention heat maps for any input sentences in English.

The multi-head attention mechanism is implemented as below. If you understand Python codes and Tensorflow to some extent, I think this part is relatively easy. The multi-head attention part is implemented as a class because you need to train weights of some fully connected layers. Whereas, scaled dot-product is just a function.

*I am going to explain the create_padding_mask() and create_look_ahead_mask() functions in upcoming articles. You do not need them this time.

Let’s see a case of using multi-head attention mechanism on a (1, 9, 512) sized input tensor, just as we have been considering in throughout this article. The first axis of (1, 9, 512) corresponds to the batch size, so this tensor is virtually a (9, 512) sized tensor, and this means the input is composed of 9 512-dimensional vectors. In the results below, you can see how the shape of input tensor changes after each procedure of calculating multi-head attention. Also you can see that the output of the multi-head attention is the same as the input, and you get a $9\times 9$ matrix of attention heat maps of each attention head.

I guess the most complicated part of this implementation above is the split_head() function, especially if you do not understand tensor arithmetic. This part corresponds to splitting the input tensor to 8 different colored matrices as in one of the figures above. If you cannot understand what is going on in the function, I recommend you to prepare a sample tensor as below.

This is just a simple (1, 9, 512) sized tensor with sequential integer elements. The first row (1, 2, …., 512) corresponds to the first input token, and (4097, 4098, … , 4608) to the last one. You should try converting this sample tensor to see how multi-head attention is implemented. For example you can try the operations below.

These operations correspond to splitting the input into 8 heads, whose sizes are all (9, 64). And the second axis of the resulting (1, 8, 9, 64) tensor corresponds to the index of the heads. Thus sample_sentence[0][0] corresponds to the first head, the blue $9\times 64$ matrix. Some Tensorflow functions enable linear calculations in each attention head, independently as in the codes below.

Very importantly, we have been only considering the cases of calculating self attentions, where all “queries”, “keys”, and “values” come from the same sentence in the same language. However, as I showed in the last article, usually “queries” are in a different language from “keys” and “values” in translation tasks, and “keys” and “values” are in the same language. And as you can imagine, usualy “queries” have different number of tokens from “keys” or “values.” You also need to understand this case, which is not calculating self-attentions. If you have followed this article so far, this case is not that hard to you. Let’s briefly see an example where the input sentence in the source language is composed 9 tokens, on the other hand the output is composed 12 tokens.

As I mentioned, one of the outputs of each multi-head attention class is $9\times 9$ matrix of attention heat maps, which I displayed as a matrix composed of blue circles in the last section. The the implementation in the Tensorflow official tutorial, I have added codes to display actual heat maps of any input sentences in English.

*If you want to try displaying them by yourself, download or just copy and paste codes in this Github page. Please maker “datasets” directory in the same directory as the code. Please download “spa-eng.zip” from this page, and unzip it. After that please put “spa.txt” on the “datasets” directory. Also, please download the “checkpoints_en_es” folder from this link, and place the folder in the same directory as the file in the Github page. In the upcoming articles, you would need similar processes to run my codes.

After running codes in the Github page, you can display heat maps of self attentions. Let’s input the sentence “Anthony Hopkins admired Michael Bay as a great director.” You would get a heat maps like this.

In fact, my toy implementation cannot handle proper nouns such as “Anthony” or “Michael.” Then let’s consider a simple input sentence “He admired her as a great director.” In each layer, you respectively get 8 self-attention heat maps.

I think we can see some tendencies in those heat maps. The heat maps in the early layers, which are close to the input, are blurry. And the distributions of the heat maps come to concentrate more or less diagonally. At the end, presumably they learn to pay attention to the start and the end of sentences.

You have finally finished reading this article. Congratulations.

You should be proud of having been patient, and you passed the most tiresome part of learning Transformer model. You must be ready for making a toy English-German translator in the upcoming articles. Also I am sure you have understood that Michael Bay is a great director, no matter what people say.

[References]

[1] Ashish Vaswani, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar, Jakob Uszkoreit, Llion Jones, Aidan N. Gomez, Lukasz Kaiser, Illia Polosukhin, “Attention Is All You Need” (2017)

[2] “Transformer model for language understanding,” Tensorflow Core
https://www.tensorflow.org/overview

[3] “Neural machine translation with attention,” Tensorflow Core
https://www.tensorflow.org/tutorials/text/nmt_with_attention

[4] Jay Alammar, “The Illustrated Transformer,”
http://jalammar.github.io/illustrated-transformer/

[5] “Stanford CS224N: NLP with Deep Learning | Winter 2019 | Lecture 14 – Transformers and Self-Attention,” stanfordonline, (2019)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5vcj8kSwBCY

[6]Tsuboi Yuuta, Unno Yuuya, Suzuki Jun, “Machine Learning Professional Series: Natural Language Processing with Deep Learning,” (2017), pp. 91-94
坪井祐太、海野裕也、鈴木潤著, 「機械学習プロフェッショナルシリーズ深層学習による自然言語処理」, (2017), pp. 191-193

[7]”Stanford CS224N: NLP with Deep Learning | Winter 2019 | Lecture 8 – Translation, Seq2Seq, Attention”, stanfordonline, (2019)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XXtpJxZBa2c

[8]Rosemary Rossi, “Anthony Hopkins Compares ‘Genius’ Michael Bay to Spielberg, Scorsese,” yahoo! entertainment, (2017)
https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/anthony-hopkins-transformers-director-michael-bay-guy-genius-010058439.html

* I make study materials on machine learning, sponsored by DATANOMIQ. I do my best to make my content as straightforward but as precise as possible. I include all of my reference sources. If you notice any mistakes in my materials, including grammatical errors, please let me know (email: yasuto.tamura@datanomiq.de). And if you have any advice for making my materials more understandable to learners, I would appreciate hearing it.

On the difficulty of language: prerequisites for NLP with deep learning

January 27, 2021/in Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Data Mining, Data Science, Data Science Hack, Deep Learning, Machine Learning, Main Category, Natural Language Processing, Python, TensorFlow, Text Mining/by Yasuto Tamura

This is the first article of my article series “Instructions on Transformer for people outside NLP field, but with examples of NLP.”

1 Preface

This section is virtually just my essay on language. You can skip this if you want to get down on more technical topic.

As I do not study in natural language processing (NLP) field, I would not be able to provide that deep insight into this fast changing deep leaning field throughout my article series. However at least I do understand language is a difficult and profound field, not only in engineering but also in many other study fields. Some people might be feeling that technologies are eliminating languages, or one’s motivations to understand other cultures. First of all, I would like you to keep it in mind that I am not a geek who is trying to turn this multilingual world into a homogeneous one and rebuild Tower of Babel, with deep learning. I would say I am more keen on social or anthropological sides of language.

I think you would think more about languages if you have mastered at least one foreign language. As my mother tongue is Japanese, which is totally different from many other Western languages in terms of characters and ambiguity, I understand translating is not what learning a language is all about. Each language has unique characteristics, and I believe they more or less influence one’s personalities. For example, many Western languages make the verb, I mean the conclusion, of sentences clear in the beginning part of the sentences. That is also true of Chinese, I heard. However in Japanese, the conclusion comes at the end, so that is likely to give an impression that Japanese people are being obscure or indecisive. Also, Japanese sentences usually omit their subjects. In German as well, the conclusion of a sentences tend to come at the end, but I am almost 100% sure that no Japanese people would feel German people make things unclear. I think that comes from the structures of German language, which tends to make the number, verb, relations of words crystal clear.

Source: https://twitter.com/nakamurakihiro

Let’s take an example to see how obscure Japanese is. A Japanese sentence 「頭が赤い魚を食べる猫」can be interpreted in five ways, depending on where you put emphases on.

Common sense tells you that the sentence is likely to mean the first two cases, but I am sure they can mean those five possibilities. There might be similarly obscure sentences in other languages, but I bet few languages can be as obscure as Japanese. Also as you can see from the last two sentences, you can omit subjects in Japanese. This rule is nothing exceptional. Japanese people usually don’t use subjects in normal conversations. And when you read classical Japanese, which Japanese high school students have to do just like Western students learn some of classical Latin, the writings omit subjects much more frequently.

*However interestingly we have rich vocabulary of subjects. The subject “I” can be translated to 「私」、「僕」、「俺」、「自分」、「うち」etc, depending on your personality, who you are talking to, and the time when it is written in.

I believe one can see the world only in the framework of their language, and it seems one’s personality changes depending on the language they use. I am not sure whether the language originally determines how they think, or how they think forms the language. But at least I would like you to keep it in mind that if you translate a conversation, for example a random conversation at a bar in Berlin, into Japanese, that would linguistically sound Japanese, but not anthropologically. Imagine that such kind of random conversation in Berlin or something is like playing a catch, I mean throwing a ball named “your opinion.” On the other hand, normal conversations of Japanese people are in stead more of, I would say, “resonance” of several tuning forks. They do their bests to show that they are listening to each other, by excessively nodding or just repeating “Really?”, but usually it seems hardly any constructive dialogues have been made.

*I sometimes feel you do not even need deep learning to simulate most of such Japanese conversations. Several-line Python codes would be enough.

My point is, this article series is mainly going to cover only a few techniques of NLP in deep learning field: sequence to sequence model (seq2seq model) , and especially Transformer. They are, at least for now, just mathematical models and mappings of a small part of this profound field of language (as far as I can cover in this article series). But still, examples of language would definitely help you understand Transformer model in the long run.

2 Tokens and word embedding

*Throughout my article series, “words” just means the normal words you use in daily life. “Tokens” means more general unit of NLP tasks. For example the word “Transformer” might be denoted as a single token “Transformer,” or maybe as a combination of two tokens “Trans” and “former.”

One challenging part of handling language data is its encodings. If you started learning programming in a language other than English, you would have encountered some troubles of using keyboards with different arrangements or with characters. Some comments on your codes in your native languages are sometimes not readable on some software. You can easily get away with that by using only English, but when it comes to NLP you have to deal with this difficulty seriously. How to encode characters in each language should be a first obstacle of NLP. In this article we are going to rely on a library named BPEmb, which provides word embedding in various languages, and you do not have to care so much about encodings in languages all over the world with this library.

In the first section, you might have noticed that Japanese sentence is not separated with spaces like Western languages. This is also true of Chinese language, and that means we need additional tasks of separating those sentences at least into proper chunks of words. This is not only a matter of engineering, but also of some linguistic fields. Also I think many people are not so conscious of how sentences in their native languages are grammatically separated.

The next point is, unlike other scientific data, such as temperature, velocity, voltage, or air pressure, language itself is not measured as numerical data. Thus in order to process language, including English, you first have to map language to certain numerical data, and after some processes you need to conversely map the output numerical data into language data. This section is going to be mainly about one-hot encoding and word embedding, the ways to convert word/token into numerical data. You might already have heard about this

You might have learnt about word embedding to some extent, but I hope you could get richer insight into this topic through this article.

2.1 One-hot encoding

One-hot encoding would be the most straightforward way to encode words/tokens. Assume that you have a dictionary whose size is $|\mathcal{V}|$ , and it includes words from “a”, “ablation”, “actually” to “zombie”, “?”, “!”

In a mathematical manner, in order to choose a word out of those $|\mathcal{V}|$ words, all you need is a $|\mathcal{V}|$ dimensional vector, one of whose elements is $1$ , and the others are $0$ . When you want to choose the No. i word, which is “indeed” in the example below, its corresponding one-hot vector is $\boldsymbol{v} = (0, \dots, 1, \dots, 0 )$ , where only the No. i element is $1$ . One-hot encoding is also easy to understand, and that’s all. It is easy to imagine that people have already come up with more complicated and better way to encoder words. And one major way to do that is word embedding.

2.2 Word embedding

Source: Francois Chollet, Deep Learning with Python,(2018), Manning

Actually word embedding is related to one-hot encoding, and if you understand how to train a simple neural network, for example densely connected layers, you would understand word embedding easily. The key idea of word embedding is denoting each token with a $D$ dimensional vector, whose dimension is fewer than the vocabulary size $|\mathcal{V}|$ . The elements of the resulting word embedding vector are real values, I mean not only 0 or 1. Obviously you can encode much richer variety of tokens with such vectors. The figure at the left side is from “Deep Learning with Python” by François Chollet, and I think this is an almost perfect and simple explanation of the comparison of one-hot encoding and word embedding. But the problem is how to get such convenient vectors. The answer is very simple: you have only to train a network whose inputs are one-hot vector of the vocabulary.

The figure below is a simplified model of word embedding of a certain word. When the word is input into a neural network, only the corresponding element of the one-hot vector is 1, and that virtually means the very first input layer is composed of one neuron whose value is 1. And the only one neuron propagates to the next D dimensional embedding layer. These weights are the very values which most other study materials call “an embedding vector.”

When you input each word into a certain network, for example RNN or Transformer, you map the input one-hot vector into the embedding layer/vector. The examples in the figure are how inputs are made when the input sentences are “You’ve got the touch” and “You’ve got the power.” Assume that you have a dictionary of one-hot encoding, whose vocabulary is {“the”, “You’ve”, “Walberg”, “touch”, “power”, “Nights”, “got”, “Mark”, “Boogie”}, and the dimension of word embeding is 6. In this case $|\mathcal{V}| = 9, D=6$ . When the inputs are “You’ve got the touch” or “You’ve got the power” , you put the one-hot vector corresponding to “You’ve”, “got”, “the”, “touch” or “You’ve”, “got”, “the”, “power” sequentially every time step $t$ .

In order to get word embedding of certain vocabulary, you just need to train the network. We know that the words “actually” and “indeed” are used in similar ways in writings. Thus when we propagate those words into the embedding layer, we can expect that those embedding layers are similar. This is how we can mathematically get effective word embedding of certain vocabulary.

More interestingly, if word embedding is properly trained, you can mathematically “calculate” words. For example, $\boldsymbol{v}_{king} - \boldsymbol{v}_{man} + \boldsymbol{v}_{woman} \approx \boldsymbol{v}_{queen}$ , $\boldsymbol{v}_{Japan} - \boldsymbol{v}_{Tokyo} + \boldsymbol{v}_{Vietnam} \approx \boldsymbol{v}_{Hanoi}$ .

*I have tried to demonstrate this type of calculation on several word embedding, but none of them seem to work well. At least you should keep it in mind that word embedding learns complicated linear relations between words.

I should explain word embedding techniques such as word2vec in detail, but the main focus of this article is not NLP, so the points I have mentioned are enough to understand Transformer model with NLP examples in the upcoming articles.

3 Language model

Language models is one of the most straightforward, but crucial ideas in NLP. This is also a big topic, so this article is going to cover only basic points. Language model is a mathematical model of the probabilities of which words to come next, given a context. For example if you have a sentence “In the lecture, he opened a _.”, a language model predicts what comes at the part “_.” It is obvious that this is contextual. If you are talking about general university students, “_” would be “textbook,” but if you are talking about Japanese universities, especially in liberal art department, “_” would be more likely to be “smartphone. I think most of you use this language model everyday. When you type in something on your computer or smartphone, you would constantly see text predictions, or they might even correct your spelling or grammatical errors. This is language modelling. You can make language models in several ways, such as n-gram and neural language models, but in this article I can explain only general formulations for such models.

*I am not sure which algorithm is used in which services. That must be too fast changing and competitive for me to catch up.

As I mentioned in the first article series on RNN, a sentence is usually processed as sequence data in NLP. One single sentence is denoted as $\boldsymbol{X} = (\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau)})$ , a list of vectors. The vectors are usually embedding vectors, and the $(t)$ is the index of the order of tokens. For example the sentence “You’ve go the power.” can be expressed as $\boldsymbol{X} = (\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(3)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(4)})$ , where $\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(3)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(4)}$ denote “You’ve”, “got”, “the”, “power”, “.” respectively. In this case $\tau = 4$ .

In practice a sentence $\boldsymbol{X}$ usually includes two tokens $BOS$ and $EOS$ at the beginning and the end of the sentence. They mean “Beginning Of Sentence” and “End Of Sentence” respectively. Thus in many cases $\boldsymbol{X} = (\boldsymbol{BOS} , \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau)}, \boldsymbol{EOS} )$ . $\boldsymbol{BOS}$ and $\boldsymbol{EOS}$ are also both vectors, at least in the Tensorflow tutorial.

$P(\boldsymbol{X} =$ $(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau)}, \boldsymbol{EOS})$ is the probability of incidence of the sentence. But it is easy to imagine that it would be very hard to directly calculate how likely the sentence $\boldsymbol{X}$ appears out of all possible sentences. I would rather say it is impossible. Thus instead in NLP we calculate the probability $P(\boldsymbol{X})$ as a product of the probability of incidence or a certain word, given all the words so far. When you’ve got the words $(\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(t-1})$ so far, the probability of the incidence of $\boldsymbol{x}^{(t)}$ , given the context is $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(t)}|\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(t-1)})$ . $P(\boldsymbol{BOS})$ is a probability of the the sentence $\boldsymbol{X}$ being $(\boldsymbol{BOS})$ , and the probability of $\boldsymbol{X}$ being $(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)})$ can be decomposed this way: $P(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}) =$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}|\boldsymbol{BOS})P(\boldsymbol{BOS})$ .

Just as well $P(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}) =$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}) P( \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)})=$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}) P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}| \boldsymbol{BOS}) P( \boldsymbol{BOS})$ .

Hence, the general probability of incidence of a sentence $\boldsymbol{X}$ is $P(\boldsymbol{X})=P(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau -1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau)}, \boldsymbol{EOS}) =$ $P(\boldsymbol{EOS}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau)})$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau)}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau - 1)})$ $\cdots$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)})$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}| \boldsymbol{BOS})$ $P(\boldsymbol{BOS})$ .

Let $\boldsymbol{x}^{(0)}$ be $\boldsymbol{BOS}$ and $\boldsymbol{x}^{(\tau + 1)}$ be $\boldsymbol{EOS}$ . Plus, let $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(t+1)}|\boldsymbol{X}_{[0, t]})$ be $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(t+1)}|\boldsymbol{x}^{(0)}, \dots, \boldsymbol{x}^{(t)})$ , then $P(\boldsymbol{X}) = P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(0)})\prod_{t=0}^{\tau}{P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(t+1)}|\boldsymbol{X}_{[0, t]})}$ . Language models calculate which words to come sequentially in this way.

Here’s a question: how would you evaluate a language model?

I would say the answer is, when the language model generates words, the more confident the language model is, the better the language model is. Given a context, when the distribution of the next word is concentrated on a certain word, we can say the language model is confident about which word to come next, given the context.

*For some people, it would be more understandable to call this “entropy.”

Let’s take the vocabulary {“the”, “You’ve”, “Walberg”, “touch”, “power”, “Nights”, “got”, “Mark”, “Boogie”} as an example. Assume that $P(\boldsymbol{X}) =$ $P(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{You've}, \boldsymbol{got}, \boldsymbol{the}, \boldsymbol{touch}, \boldsymbol{EOS}) =$ $P(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(3)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(4)}, \boldsymbol{EOS})=$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(0)})\prod_{t=0}^{4}{P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(t+1)}|\boldsymbol{X}_{[0, t]})}$ . Given a context $(\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)})$ , the probability of incidence of $\boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}$ is $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{2}|\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)})$ . In the figure below, the distribution at the left side is less confident because probabilities do not spread widely, on the other hand the one at the right side is more confident that next word is “got” because the distribution concentrates on “got”.

*You have to keep it in mind that the sum of all possible probability $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(2)} | \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)})$ is $1$ , that is, $P(\boldsymbol{the}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}) +$ $P(\boldsymbol{You've}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}) + \cdots$ $+ P(\boldsymbol{Boogie}| \boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}) = 1$ .

While the language model generating the sentence “BOS You’ve got the touch EOS”, it is better if the language model keeps being confident. If it is confident, $P(\boldsymbol{X})=$ $P(\boldsymbol{BOS})$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}|\boldsymbol{BOS}}P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(3)}|\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)})$ $P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(4)}|\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(3)})$ $P(\boldsymbol{EOS}|\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(3)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(4)})}$ gets higher. Thus $(-1) \{ log_{b}{P(\boldsymbol{BOS})} +$ $log_{b}{P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}|\boldsymbol{BOS}}) +$ $log_{b}{P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(3)}|\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)})} +$ $log_{b}{P(\boldsymbol{x}^{(4)}|\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(3)})} +$ $log_{b}{P(\boldsymbol{EOS}|\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(1)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(2)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(3)}, \boldsymbol{x}^{(4)})} \}$ gets lower, where usually $b=2$ or $b=e$ .

This is how to measure how confident language models are, and the indicator of the confidence is called perplexity. Assume that you have a data set for evaluation $\mathcal{D} = (\boldsymbol{X}_1, \dots, \boldsymbol{X}_n, \dots, \boldsymbol{X}_{|\mathcal{D}|})$ , which is composed of $|\mathcal{D}|$ sentences in total. Each sentence $\boldsymbol{X}_n =$ $(\boldsymbol{x}^{(0)})\prod_{t=0}^{\tau ^{(n)}}{P(\boldsymbol{x}_{n}^{(t+1)}|\boldsymbol{X}_{n, [0, t]})}$ has $\tau^{(n)}$ tokens in total excluding $\boldsymbol{BOS}, \boldsymbol{EOS}$ . And let $|\mathcal{V}|$ be the size of the vocabulary of the language model. Then the perplexity of the language model is $b^z$ , where $z = \frac{-1}{|\mathcal{V}|}\sum_{n=1}^{|\mathcal{D}|}{\sum_{t=0}^{\tau ^{(n)}}{log_{b}P(\boldsymbol{x}_{n}^{(t+1)}|\boldsymbol{X}_{n, [0, t]})}$ . The $b$ is usually $2$ or $e$ .

For example, assume that $\mathcal{V}$ is vocabulary {“the”, “You’ve”, “Walberg”, “touch”, “power”, “Nights”, “got”, “Mark”, “Boogie”}. Also assume that the evaluation data set for perplexity of a language model is $\mathcal{D} = (\boldsymbol{X}_1, \boldsymbol{X}_2)$ , where $\boldsymbol{X_1} =(\boldsymbol{You've}, \boldsymbol{got}, \boldsymbol{the}, \boldsymbol{touch})$ $\boldsymbol{X_2} = (\boldsymbol{You've}, \boldsymbol{got}, \boldsymbol{the }, \boldsymbol{power})$ . In this case $|\mathcal{V}|=9,$ $|\mathcal{D}|=2$ . I have already showed you how to calculate the perplexity of the sentence “You’ve got the touch.” above. You just need to do a similar thing on another sentence “You’ve got the power”, and then you can get the perplexity of the language model.

*If the network is not properly trained, it would also be confident of generating wrong outputs. However, such network still would give high perplexity because it is “confident” at any rate. I’m sorry I don’t know how to tackle the problem. Please let me put this aside, and let’s get down on Transformer model soon.

Appendix

Let’s see how word embedding is implemented with a very simple example in the official Tensorflow tutorial. It is a simple binary classification task on IMDb Dataset. The dataset is composed to comments on movies by movie critics, and you have only to classify if the commentary is positive or negative about the movie. For example when you get you get an input “To be honest, Michael Bay is a terrible as an action film maker. You cannot understand what is going on during combat scenes, and his movies rely too much on advertisements. I got a headache when Mark Walberg used a Chinese cridit card in Texas. However he is very competent when it comes to humorous scenes. He is very talented as a comedy director, and I have to admit I laughed a lot.“, the neural netowork has to judge whether the statement is positive or negative.

This networks just takes an average of input embedding vectors and regress it into a one dimensional value from 0 to 1. The shape of embedding layer is (8185, 16). Weights of neural netowrks are usually implemented as matrices, and you can see that each row of the matrix corresponds to emmbedding vector of each token.

*It is easy to imagine that this technique is problematic. This network virtually taking a mean of input embedding vectors. That could mean if the input sentence includes relatively many tokens with negative meanings, it is inclined to be classified as negative. But for example, if the sentence is “This masterpiece is a dark comedy by Charlie Chaplin which depicted stupidity of the evil tyrant gaining power in the time. It thoroughly mocked Germany in the time as an absurd group of fanatics, but such propaganda could have never been made until ‘Casablanca.'” , this can be classified as negative, because only the part “masterpiece” is positive as a token, and there are much more words with negative meanings themselves.

The official Tensorflow tutorial provides visualization of word embedding with Embedding Projector, but I would like you to take more control over the data by yourself. Please just copy and paste the codes below, installing necessary libraries. You would get a map of vocabulary used in the text classification task. It seems you cannot find clear tendency of the clusters of the tokens. You can try other dimension reduction methods to get maps of the vocabulary by for example using Scikit Learn.

import tensorflow as tf

from tensorflow import keras

from tensorflow.keras import layers

import tensorflow_datasets as tfds

tfds.disable_progress_bar()

(train_data, test_data), info = tfds.load(

'imdb_reviews/subwords8k',

split = (tfds.Split.TRAIN, tfds.Split.TEST),

with_info=True, as_supervised=True)

train_batches = train_data.shuffle(1000).padded_batch(10)

test_batches = test_data.shuffle(1000).padded_batch(10)

embedding_dim=16

encoder = info.features['text'].encoder

model = keras.Sequential([

layers.Embedding(encoder.vocab_size, embedding_dim),

layers.GlobalAveragePooling1D(),

layers.Dense(16, activation='relu'),

layers.Dense(1)

])

print("\n\nThe size of the vocabulary generated from IMDb Dataset is " + str(encoder.vocab_size) + '\n\n')

model.summary()

model.compile(optimizer='adam',

loss=tf.keras.losses.BinaryCrossentropy(from_logits=True),

metrics=['accuracy'])

history = model.fit(

train_batches,

epochs=10,

validation_data=test_batches, validation_steps=20)

word_embedding_vectors = model.layers[0].get_weights()[0]

print("\n\nThe shape of the trained weigths of the embedding layer is " + str(word_embedding_vectors.shape) + '\n\n')

from sklearn.manifold import TSNE

X_reduced = TSNE(n_components = 2, init='pca', random_state=0).fit_transform(word_embedding_vectors)

import numpy as np

embedding_dict = zip(encoder.subwords, np.arange(len(encoder.subwords)))

embedding_dict = dict(embedding_dict)

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

plt.figure(figsize=(60, 45))

plt.scatter(X_reduced[:, 0], X_reduced[:, 1])

for i in range(0, len(encoder.subwords), 5):

plt.text(X_reduced[i, 0], X_reduced[i, 1], encoder.subwords[i], fontsize=20, color='red')

plt.title("The map of vocabulary of IMDb Dataset mapped to a 2 dimensional space by t-SNE", fontsize=60)

#plt.savefig('imdb_tsne_map.png')

plt.show()

[References]

[1] “Word embeddings” Tensorflow Core
https://www.tensorflow.org/tutorials/text/word_embeddings

[2]Tsuboi Yuuta, Unno Yuuya, Suzuki Jun, “Machine Learning Professional Series: Natural Language Processing with Deep Learning,” (2017), pp. 43-64, 72-85, 91-94
坪井祐太、海野裕也、鈴木潤著, 「機械学習プロフェッショナルシリーズ深層学習による自然言語処理」, (2017), pp. 43-64, 72-85, 191-193

[3]”Stanford CS224N: NLP with Deep Learning | Winter 2019 | Lecture 8 – Translation, Seq2Seq, Attention”, stanfordonline, (2019)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XXtpJxZBa2c

[4] Francois Chollet, Deep Learning with Python,(2018), Manning , pp. 178-185

[5]”2.2. Manifold learning,” scikit-learn
https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/manifold.html

Understanding LSTM forward propagation in two ways

August 21, 2020/in Artificial Intelligence, Data Mining, Data Science, Data Science Hack, Deep Learning, Machine Learning, Main Category, Predictive Analytics/by Yasuto Tamura

*This article is only for the sake of understanding the equations in the second page of the paper named “LSTM: A Search Space Odyssey”. If you have no trouble understanding the equations of LSTM forward propagation, I recommend you to skip this article and go the the next article.

*This article is the fourth article of “A gentle introduction to the tiresome part of understanding RNN.”

1. Preface

I heard that in Western culture, smart people write textbooks so that other normal people can understand difficult stuff, and that is why textbooks in Western countries tend to be bulky, but also they are not so difficult as they look. On the other hand in Asian culture, smart people write puzzling texts on esoteric topics, and normal people have to struggle to understand what noble people wanted to say. Publishers also require the authors to keep the texts as short as possible, so even though the textbooks are thin, usually students have to repeat reading the textbooks several times because usually they are too abstract.

Both styles have cons and pros, and usually I prefer Japanese textbooks because they are concise, and sometimes it is annoying to read Western style long texts with concrete straightforward examples to reach one conclusion. But a problem is that when it comes to explaining LSTM, almost all the text books are like Asian style ones. Every study material seems to skip the proper steps necessary for “normal people” to understand its algorithms. But after actually making concrete slides on mathematics on LSTM, I understood why: if you write down all the equations on LSTM forward/back propagation, that is going to be massive, and actually I had to make 100-page PowerPoint animated slides to make it understandable to people like me.

I already had a feeling that “Does it help to understand only LSTM with this precision? I should do more practical codings.” For example François Chollet, the developer of Keras, in his book, said as below.

For me that sounds like “We have already implemented RNNs for you, so just shut up and use Tensorflow/Keras.” Indeed, I have never cared about the architecture of my Mac Book Air, but I just use it every day, so I think he is to the point. To make matters worse, for me, a promising algorithm called Transformer seems to be replacing the position of LSTM in natural language processing. But in this article series and in my PowerPoint slides, I tried to explain as much as possible, contrary to his advice.

But I think, or rather hope, it is still meaningful to understand this 23-year-old algorithm, which is as old as me. I think LSTM did build a generation of algorithms for sequence data, and actually Sepp Hochreiter, the inventor of LSTM, has received Neural Network Pioneer Award 2021 for his work.

I hope those who study sequence data processing in the future would come to this article series, and study basics of RNN just as I also study classical machine learning algorithms.

*In this article “Densely Connected Layers” is written as “DCL,” and “Convolutional Neural Network” as “CNN.”

2. Why LSTM?

First of all, let’s take a brief look at what I said about the structures of RNNs, in the first and the second article. A simple RNN is basically densely connected network with a few layers. But the RNN gets an input every time step, and it gives out an output at the time step. Part of information in the middle layer are succeeded to the next time step, and in the next time step, the RNN also gets an input and gives out an output. Therefore, virtually a simple RNN behaves almost the same way as densely connected layers with many layers during forward/back propagation if you focus on its recurrent connections.

That is why simple RNNs suffer from vanishing/exploding gradient problems, where the information exponentially vanishes or explodes when its gradients are multiplied many times through many layers during back propagation. To be exact, I think you need to consider this problem precisely like you can see in this paper. But for now, please at least keep it in mind that when you calculate a gradient of an error function with respect to parameters of simple neural networks, you have to multiply parameters many times like below, and this type of calculation usually leads to vanishing/exploding gradient problem.

LSTM was invented as a way to tackle such problems as I mentioned in the last article.

3. How to display LSTM

I would like you to just go to image search on Google, Bing, or Yahoo!, and type in “LSTM.” I think you will find many figures, but basically LSTM charts are roughly classified into two types: in this article I call them “Space Odyssey type” and “electronic circuit type”, and in conclusion, I highly recommend you to understand LSTM as the “electronic circuit type.”

*I just randomly came up with the terms “Space Odyssey type” and “electronic circuit type” because the former one is used in the paper I mentioned, and the latter one looks like an electronic circuit to me. You do not have to take how I call them seriously.

However, not that all the well-made explanations on LSTM use the “electronic circuit type,” and I am sure you sometimes have to understand LSTM as the “space odyssey type.” And the paper “LSTM: A Search Space Odyssey,” which I learned a lot about LSTM from, also adopts the “Space Odyssey type.”

The main reason why I recommend the “electronic circuit type” is that its behaviors look closer to that of simple RNNs, which you would have seen if you read my former articles.

*Behaviors of both of them look different, but of course they are doing the same things.

If you have some understanding on DCL, I think it was not so hard to understand how simple RNNs work because simple RNNs are mainly composed of linear connections of neurons and weights, whose structures are the same almost everywhere. And basically they had only straightforward linear connections as you can see below.

But from now on, I would like you to give up the ideas that LSTM is composed of connections of neurons like the head image of this article series. If you do that, I think that would be chaotic and I do not want to make a figure of it on Power Point. In short, sooner or later you have to understand equations of LSTM.

4. Forward propagation of LSTM in “electronic circuit type”

*For further understanding of mathematics of LSTM forward/back propagation, I recommend you to download my slides.

The behaviors of an LSTM block is quite similar to that of a simple RNN block: an RNN block gets an input every time step and gets information from the RNN block of the last time step, via recurrent connections. And the block succeeds information to the next block.

Let’s look at the simplified architecture of an LSTM block. First of all, you should keep it in mind that LSTM have two streams of information: the one going through all the gates, and the one going through cell connections, the “highway” of LSTM block. For simplicity, we will see the architecture of an LSTM block without peephole connections, the lines in blue. The flow of information through cell connections is relatively uninterrupted. This helps LSTMs to retain information for a long time.

In a LSTM block, the input and the output of the former time step separately go through sections named “gates”: input gate, forget gate, output gate, and block input. The outputs of the forget gate, the input gate, and the block input join the highway of cell connections to renew the value of the cell.

*The small two dots on the cell connections are the “on-ramp” of cell conection highway.

*You would see the terms “input gate,” “forget gate,” “output gate” almost everywhere, but how to call the “block gate” depends on textbooks.

Let’s look at the structure of an LSTM block a bit more concretely. An LSTM block at the time step $(t)$ gets $\boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)}$ , the output at the last time step, and $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t-1)}$ , the information of the cell at the time step $(t-1)$ , via recurrent connections. The block at time step $(t)$ gets the input $\boldsymbol{x}^{(t)}$ , and it separately goes through each gate, together with $\boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)}$ . After some calculations and activation, each gate gives out an output. The outputs of the forget gate, the input gate, the block input, and the output gate are respectively $\boldsymbol{f}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{i}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{z}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{o}^{(t)}$ . The outputs of the gates are mixed with $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t-1)}$ and the LSTM block gives out an output $\boldsymbol{y}^{(t)}$ , and gives $\boldsymbol{y}^{(t)}$ and $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t)}$ to the next LSTM block via recurrent connections.

You calculate $\boldsymbol{f}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{i}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{z}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{o}^{(t)}$ as below.

$\boldsymbol{f}^{(t)}= \sigma(\boldsymbol{W}_{for} \boldsymbol{x}^{(t)} + \boldsymbol{R}_{for} \boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)} + \boldsymbol{b}_{for})$
$\boldsymbol{i}^{(t)}=\sigma(\boldsymbol{W}_{in} \boldsymbol{x}^{(t)} + \boldsymbol{R}_{in} \boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)} + \boldsymbol{b}_{in})$
$\boldsymbol{z}^{(t)}=tanh(\boldsymbol{W}_z \boldsymbol{x}^{(t)} + \boldsymbol{R}_z \boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)} + \boldsymbol{b}_z)$
$\boldsymbol{o}^{(t)}=\sigma(\boldsymbol{W}_{out} \boldsymbol{x}^{(t)} + \boldsymbol{R}_{out} \boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)} + \boldsymbol{b}_{out})$

*You have to keep it in mind that the equations above do not include peephole connections, which I am going to show with blue lines in the end.

The equations above are quite straightforward if you understand forward propagation of simple neural networks. You add linear products of $\boldsymbol{y}^{(t)}$ and $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t)}$ with different weights in each gate. What makes LSTMs different from simple RNNs is how to mix the outputs of the gates with the cell connections. In order to explain that, I need to introduce a mathematical operator called Hadamard product, which you denote as $\odot$ . This is a very simple operator. This operator produces an elementwise product of two vectors or matrices with identical shape.

With this Hadamar product operator, the renewed cell and the output are calculated as below.

$\boldsymbol{c}^{(t)} = \boldsymbol{z}^{(t)}\odot \boldsymbol{i}^{(t)} + \boldsymbol{c}^{(t-1)} \odot \boldsymbol{f}^{(t)}$
$\boldsymbol{y}^{(t)} = \boldsymbol{o}^{(t)} \odot tanh(\boldsymbol{c}^{(t)})$

The values of $\boldsymbol{f}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{i}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{z}^{(t)}, \boldsymbol{o}^{(t)}$ are compressed into the range of $[0, 1]$ or $[-1, 1]$ with activation functions. You can see that the input gate and the block input give new information to the cell. The part $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t-1)} \odot \boldsymbol{f}^{(t)}$ means that the output of the forget gate “forgets” the cell of the last time step by multiplying the values from 0 to 1 elementwise. And the cell $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t)}$ is activated with $tanh()$ and the output of the output gate “suppress” the activated value of $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t)}$ . In other words, the output gatedecides how much information to give out as an output of the LSTM block. The output of every gate depends on the input $\boldsymbol{x}^{(t)}$ , and the recurrent connection $\boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)}$ . That means an LSTM block learns to forget the cell of the last time step, to renew the cell, and to suppress the output. To describe in an extreme manner, if all the outputs of every gate are always $(1, 1, …1)^T$ , LSTMs forget nothing, retain information of inputs at every time step, and gives out everything. And if all the outputs of every gate are always $(0, 0, …0)^T$ , LSTMs forget everything, receive no inputs, and give out nothing.

This model has one problem: the outputs of each gate do not directly depend on the information in the cell. To solve this problem, some LSTM models introduce some flows of information from the cell to each gate, which are shown as lines in blue in the figure below.

LSTM models, for example the one with or without peephole connection, depend on the library you use, and the model I have showed is one of standard LSTM structure. However no matter how complicated structure of an LSTM block looks, you usually cover it with a black box as below and show its behavior in a very simplified way.

5. Space Odyssey type

I personally think there is no advantages of understanding how LSTMs work with this Space Odyssey type chart, but in several cases you would have to use this type of chart. So I will briefly explain how to look at that type of chart, based on understandings of LSTMs you have gained through this article.

In Space Odyssey type of LSTM chart, at the center is a cell. Electronic circuit type of chart, which shows the flow of information of the cell as an uninterrupted “highway” in an LSTM block. On the other hand, in a Spacey Odyssey type of chart, the information of the cell rotate at the center. And each gate gets the information of the cell through peephole connections, $\boldsymbol{x}^{(t)}$ , the input at the time step $(t)$ , sand $\boldsymbol{y}^{(t-1)}$ , the output at the last time step $(t-1)$ , which came through recurrent connections. In Space Odyssey type of chart, you can more clearly see that the information of the cell go to each gate through the peephole connections in blue. Each gate calculates its output.

Just as the charts you have seen, the dotted line denote the information from the past. First, the information of the cell at the time step $(t-1)$ goes to the forget gate and get mixed with the output of the forget cell In this process the cell is partly “forgotten.” Next, the input gate and the block input are mixed to generate part of new value of the the cell at time step $(t)$ . And the partly “forgotten” $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t-1)}$ goes back to the center of the block and it is mixed with the output of the input gate and the block input. That is how $\boldsymbol{c}^{(t)}$ is renewed. And the value of new cell flow to the top of the chart, being mixed with the output of the output gate. Or you can also say the information of new cell is “suppressed” with the output gate.

I have finished the first four articles of this article series, and finally I am gong to write about back propagation of LSTM in the next article. I have to say what I have written so far is all for the next article, and my long long Power Point slides.

[References]

[1] Klaus Greff, Rupesh Kumar Srivastava, Jan Koutník, Bas R. Steunebrink, Jürgen Schmidhuber, “LSTM: A Search Space Odyssey,” (2017)

[2] Francois Chollet, Deep Learning with Python,(2018), Manning , pp. 202-204

[3] “Sepp Hochreiter receives IEEE CIS Neural Networks Pioneer Award 2021”, Institute of advanced research in artificial intelligence, (2020)
URL: https://www.iarai.ac.at/news/sepp-hochreiter-receives-ieee-cis-neural-networks-pioneer-award-2021/?fbclid=IwAR27cwT5MfCw4Tqzs3MX_W9eahYDcIFuoGymATDR1A-gbtVmDpb8ExfQ87A

[4] Oketani Takayuki, “Machine Learning Professional Series: Deep Learning,” (2015), pp. 120-125
岡谷貴之著, 「機械学習プロフェッショナルシリーズ深層学習」, (2015), pp. 120-125

[5] Harada Tatsuya, “Machine Learning Professional Series: Image Recognition,” (2017), pp. 252-257
原田達也著, 「機械学習プロフェッショナルシリーズ画像認識」, (2017), pp. 252-257

[6] “Understandable LSTM ~ With the Current Trends,” Qiita, (2015)
「わかるLSTM ～最近の動向と共に」, Qiita, (2015)
URL: https://qiita.com/t_Signull/items/21b82be280b46f467d1b

Wie funktioniert Natural Language Processing in der Praxis? Ein Überblick

January 24, 2020/in Business Analytics, Data Mining, Data Science, Data Science News, Tutorial/by Aleksandra Klofat

Natural Language Processing (NLP,auf Deutsch auch als Computerlinguistik bezeichnet) gilt als ein Teilbereich des Machine Learning und der Sprachwissenschaften.

Beim NLP geht es vom Prinzip um das Extrahieren und Verarbeiten von Informationen, die in den natürlichen Sprachen enthalten sind. Im Rahmen von NLP wird die natürliche Sprache durch den Rechner in Zahlenabfolgen umgewandelt. Diese Zahlenabfolgen kann wiederum der Rechner benutzen, um Rückschlüsse auf unsere Welt zu ziehen. Kurz gesagt erlaubt NLP dem Computer unsere Sprache in ihren verschiedenen Formen zu verarbeiten.

Eine ausführlichere Definition von NLP wurde auf dem Data Science Blog von Christopher Kipp vorgenommen.

In diesem Beitrag werde ich dagegen einen Überblick über die spezifischen Schritte im NLP als Prozess darstellen, denn NLP erfolgt in mehreren Phasen, die aufeinander Folgen und zum Teil als Kreislauf verstanden werden können. In ihren Grundlagen ähneln sich diese Phasen bei jeder NLP-Anwendung, sei es Chatbot Erstellung oder Sentiment Analyse.

1. Datenreinigung / Normalisierung

In dieser Phase werden die rohen Sprachdaten aus ihrem ursprünglichen Format entnommen, sodass am Ende nur reine Textdaten ohne Format erhalten bleiben.

Beispielsweise können die Textdaten für unsere Analyse aus Webseiten stammen und nach ihrer Erhebung in HTML Code eingebettet sein.

Das Bild zeigt eine Beispielseite. Der Text hier ist noch in einen HTML Kontext eingebettet. Der erste Schritt muss daher sein, den Text von den diversen HTML-Tags zu bereinigen.

2. Tokenisierung und Normalisierung (Tokenizing and Normalizing)

Nach dem ersten Schritt steht als Ergebnis idealerweise reiner Text da, der aber auch Sprachelemente wie Punkte, Kommata sowie Groß- und Kleinschreibung beinhaltet.

Hier kommt der nächste Schritt ins Spiel – die Entfernung der Interpunktion vom Text. Der Text wird auf diese Weise auf seine Wort-Bestandteile (sog. Tokens) reduziert.

Zusätzlich zu diesem Schritt kann auch Groß- und Kleinschreibung entfernt werden (Normalisierung). Dies spart vor allem die Rechenkapazität.

So wird aus folgendem Abschnitt:

Auf diese Weise können wir die Daten aggregieren und in Subsets analysieren. Wir müssen nicht immer das ganze Machine Learning in Hadoop und Spark auf dem gesamten Datensatz starten.

folgender Text

auf diese weise können wir die daten aggregieren und in subsets analysieren wir müssen nicht immer das ganze machine learning in hadoop und spark auf dem gesamten datensatz starten

3. Füllwörterentfernung / Stop words removal

Im nächsten Schritt entfernen wir die sogenannten Füllwörter wie „und“, „sowie“, „etc.“. In den entsprechenden Python Bibliotheken sind die gängigen Füllwörter bereits gespeichert und können leicht entfernt werden. Trotzdem ist hier Vorsicht geboten. Die Bedeutung der Füllwörter in einer Sprache verändert sich je nach Kontext. Aus diesem Grund ist dieser Schritt optional und die zu entfernenden Füllwörter müssen kontextabhängig ausgewählt werden.

Nach diesem Schritt bleibt dann in unserem Beispiel folgender Text erhalten:

können daten aggregieren subsets analysieren müssen nicht immer machine learning hadoop spark datensatz starten

4. Pats of speech (POS)
Als weiterer Schritt können die Wörter mit ihrer korrekten Wortart markiert werden. Der Rechner markiert sie entsprechend als Verben, Nomen, Adjektive etc. Dieser Schritt könnte für manche Fälle der Grundformreduktion/Lemmatization notwendig sein (dazu sogleich unten).

5. Stemming und Lemmatization/Grundformreduktion

In weiteren Schritten kann weiter das sogenannte Stemming und Lemmatization folgen. Vom Prinzip werden hier die einzelnen Wörter in ihre Grundform bzw. Wörterbuchform gebracht.

Im Fall von Stemming werden die Wörter am Ende einfach abgeschnitten und auf den Wortstamm reduziert. So wäre zum Beispiel das Verb „gehen“, „geht“ auf die Form „geh“ reduziert.

Im Fall der Lemmatization bzw. Grundformreduktion werden die Wörter in ihre ursprüngliche Wörterbuchform gebracht: das Verb „geht“ wäre dann ins „gehen“ transformiert.

Parts of Speech, Stemming als auch Lemmatising sind vorteilhaft für die Komplexitätsreduktion. Sie führen deswegen zu mehr Effizienz und schnellerer Anwendbarkeit. Dies geschieht allerdings auf Kosten der Präzision. Die auf diese Weise erstellten Listen können dann im Fall einer Suchmaschine weniger relevante Ergebnisse liefern.

Nachfolgende Schritte beim NLP transformieren den Text in mathematische Zahlenfolgen, die der Rechner verstehen kann. Wie wir in diesem Schritt vorgehen, hängt stark davon ab, was das eigentliche Ziel des Projektes sei. Es gibt ein breites Angebot an Python Paketen, die die Zahlenbildung je nach Projektziel unterschiedlich gestalten

6a. Bag of Words Methoden in Python (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bag-of-words_model)

Zu den Bag of Words Methoden in Python gehört das sogenannte TF-IDF Vectorizer. Die Transformationsmethode mit dem TF-IDF eignet sich beispielsweise zum Bau eines Spamdetektors, da der TF-IDF Vectorizer die Wörter im Kontext des Gesamtdokumentes betrachtet.

6b. Word Embeddings Methoden in Python: Word2Vec, GloVe (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_embedding)

Wie der Name bereits sagt transformiert Word2Vec die einzelnen Wörter zu Vektoren (Zahlenfolgen). Dabei werden ähnliche Wörter zu ähnlichen Vektoren transformiert. Die Methoden aus der Word Embeddings Kiste eignen sich zum Beispiel besser, um einen Chatbot zu erstellen.

Im letzten Schritt des NLP können wir die so prozessierte Sprache in die gängigen Machine Learning Modelle einspeisen. Das Beste an den oben erwähnten NLP Techniken ist die Transformation der Sprache in Zahlensequenzen, die durch jeden ML Algorithmus analysiert werden können. Die weitere Vorgehensweise hängt hier nur noch vom Ziel des Projektes ab.

Dies ist ein Überblick über die notwendigen (und optionalen) Schritte in einem NLP Verfahren. Natürlich hängt die Anwendung vom jeweiligen Use Case ab. Die hier beschriebenen NLP Phasen nehmen viele Ungenauigkeiten in Kauf, wie zum Beispiel die Reduzierung der Wörter auf Wortstämmen bzw. den Verzicht auf Großschreibung. Bei der Umsetzung in der Praxis müssen immer Kosten und Nutzen abgewogen werden und das Verfahren dem besonderen Fall angepasst werden.

Quellen:

Mandy Gu: „Spam or Ham: Introduction to Natural Language Processing Part 2“ https://towardsdatascience.com/spam-or-ham-introduction-to-natural-language-processing-part-2-a0093185aebd
Christopher D. Manning, Prabhakar Raghavan & Hinrich Schütze: „Introduction to Information Retrieval”, Cambridge University Press, https://nlp.stanford.edu/IR-book/
Hobson Lane, Cole Howard, Hannes Max Hapke: „Natural Language Processing in Action. Understanding, analyzing, and generating text with Python.” Manning Shelter Island

Language Detecting with sklearn by determining Letter Frequencies

November 12, 2018/in Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Business Analytics, Business Intelligence, Data Mining, Data Science, Data Science at the Command Line, Data Science Hack, Hacking, Machine Learning, Main Category, Python, Python, Text Mining, Tools, Tutorial, Use Case, Use Cases, Visualization/by Christopher Kipp

Of course, there are better and more efficient methods to detect the language of a given text than counting its lettes. On the other hand this is a interesting little example to show the impressing ability of todays machine learning algorithms to detect hidden patterns in a given set of data.

For example take the sentence:

“Ceci est une phrase française.”

It’s not to hard to figure out that this sentence is french. But the (lowercase) letters of the same sentence in a random order look like this:

“eeasrsçneticuaicfhenrpaes”

Still sure it’s french? Regarding the fact that this string contains the letter “ç” some people could have remembered long passed french lessons back in school and though might have guessed right. But beside the fact that the french letter “ç” is also present for example in portuguese, turkish, catalan and a few other languages, this is still a easy example just to explain the problem. Just try to guess which language might have generated this:

“ogldviisnntmeyoiiesettpetorotrcitglloeleiengehorntsnraviedeenltseaecithooheinsnstiofwtoienaoaeefiitaeeauobmeeetdmsflteightnttxipecnlgtetgteyhatncdisaceahrfomseehmsindrlttdthoaranthahdgasaebeaturoehtrnnanftxndaeeiposttmnhgttagtsheitistrrcudf”

While this looks simply confusing to the human eye and it seems practically impossible to determine the language it was generated from, this string still contains as set of hidden but well defined patterns from which the language could be predictet with almost complete (ca. 98-99%) certainty.

First of all, we need a set of texts in the languages our model should be able to recognise. Luckily with the package NLTK there comes a big set of example texts which actually are protocolls of the european parliament and therefor are publicly availible in 11 differen languages:

Danish
Dutch
English
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Italian
Portuguese
Spanish
Swedish

Because the greek version is not written with the latin alphabet, the detection of the language greek would just be too simple, so we stay with the other 10 languages availible. To give you a idea of the used texts, here is a little sample:

“Resumption of the session I declare resumed the session of the European Parliament adjourned on Friday 17 December 1999, and I would like once again to wish you a happy new year in the hope that you enjoyed a pleasant festive period.
Although, as you will have seen, the dreaded ‘millennium bug’ failed to materialise, still the people in a number of countries suffered a series of natural disasters that truly were dreadful.”

Train and Test

The following code imports the nessesary modules and reads the sample texts from a set of text files into a pandas.Dataframe object and prints some statistics about the read texts:

from pathlib import Path

import random

from collections import Counter, defaultdict

import numpy as np

import pandas as pd

from sklearn.neighbors import *

from matplotlib import pyplot as plt

from mpl_toolkits import mplot3d

%matplotlib inline

def read(file):

'''Returns contents of a file'''

with open(file, 'r', errors='ignore') as f:

text = f.read()

return text

def load_eu_texts():

'''Read texts snipplets in 10 different languages into pd.Dataframe

load_eu_texts() -> pd.Dataframe

The text snipplets are taken from the nltk-data corpus.

'''

basepath = Path('/home/my_username/nltk_data/corpora/europarl_raw/langs/')

df = pd.DataFrame(columns=['text', 'lang', 'len'])

languages = [None]

for lang in basepath.iterdir():

languages.append(lang.as_posix())

t = '\n'.join([read(p) for p in lang.glob('*')])

d = pd.DataFrame()

d['text'] = ''

d['text'] = pd.Series(t.split('\n'))

d['lang'] = lang.name.title()

df = df.append(d.copy(), ignore_index=True)

return df

def clean_eutextdf(df):

'''Preprocesses the texts by doing a set of cleaning steps

clean_eutextdf(df) -> cleaned_df

'''

# Cuts of whitespaces a the beginning and and

df['text'] = [i.strip() for i in df['text']]

# Generate a lowercase Version of the text column

df['ltext'] = [i.lower() for i in df['text']]

# Determining the length of each text

df['len'] = [len(i) for i in df['text']]

# Drops all texts that are not at least 200 chars long

df = df.loc[df['len'] > 200]

return df

# Execute the above functions to load the texts

df = clean_eutextdf(load_eu_texts())

# Print a few stats of the read texts

textline = 'Number of text snippplets: ' + str(df.shape[0])

print('\n' + textline + '\n' + ''.join(['_' for i in range(len(textline))]))

c = Counter(df['lang'])

for l in c.most_common():

print('%-25s' % l[0] + str(l[1]))

df.sample(10)

Number of text snippplets: 56481

________________________________

French 6466

German 6401

Italian 6383

Portuguese 6147

Spanish 6016

Finnish 5597

Swedish 4940

Danish 4914

Dutch 4826

English 4791

lang len text ltext

135233 Finnish 346 Vastustan sitä , toisin kuin tämän parlamentin... vastustan sitä , toisin kuin tämän parlamentin...

170400 Danish 243 Desuden ødelægger det centraliserede europæisk... desuden ødelægger det centraliserede europæisk...

85466 Italian 220 In primo luogo , gli accordi di Sharm el-Sheik... in primo luogo , gli accordi di sharm el-sheik...

15926 French 389 Pour ce qui est concrètement du barrage de Ili... pour ce qui est concrètement du barrage de ili...

195321 English 204 Discretionary powers for national supervisory ... discretionary powers for national supervisory ...

160557 Danish 304 Det er de spørgmål , som de lande , der udgør ... det er de spørgmål , som de lande , der udgør ...

196310 English 355 What remains of the concept of what a company ... what remains of the concept of what a company ...

110163 Portuguese 327 Actualmente , é do conhecimento dos senhores d... actualmente , é do conhecimento dos senhores d...

151681 Danish 203 Dette er vigtigt for den tillid , som samfunde... dette er vigtigt for den tillid , som samfunde...

200540 English 257 Therefore , according to proponents , such as ... therefore , according to proponents , such as ...

Above you see a sample set of random rows of the created Dataframe. After removing very short text snipplets (less than 200 chars) we are left with 56481 snipplets. The function clean_eutextdf() then creates a lower case representation of the texts in the coloum ‘ltext’ to facilitate counting the chars in the next step.
The following code snipplet now extracs the features – in this case the relative frequency of each letter in every text snipplet – that are used for prediction:

def calc_charratios(df):

'''Calculating ratio of any (alphabetical) char in any text of df for each lyric

calc_charratios(df) -> list, pd.Dataframe

'''

CHARS = ''.join({c for c in ''.join(df['ltext']) if c.isalpha()})

print('Counting Chars:')

for c in CHARS:

print(c, end=' ')

df[c] = [r.count(c) for r in df['ltext']] / df['len']

return list(CHARS), df

features, df = calc_charratios(df)

Now that we have calculated the features for every text snipplet in our dataset, we can split our data set in a train and test set:

def split_dataset(df, ratio=0.5):

'''Split the dataset into a train and a test dataset

split_dataset(featuredf, ratio) -> pd.Dataframe, pd.Dataframe

'''

df = df.sample(frac=1).reset_index(drop=True)

traindf = df[:][:int(df.shape[0] * ratio)]

testdf = df[:][int(df.shape[0] * ratio):]

return traindf, testdf

featuredf = pd.DataFrame()

featuredf['lang'] = df['lang']

for feature in features:

featuredf[feature] = df[feature]

traindf, testdf = split_dataset(featuredf, ratio=0.80)

x = np.array([np.array(row[1:]) for index, row in traindf.iterrows()])

y = np.array([l for l in traindf['lang']])

X = np.array([np.array(row[1:]) for index, row in testdf.iterrows()])

Y = np.array([l for l in testdf['lang']])

After doing that, we can train a k-nearest-neigbours classifier and test it to get the percentage of correctly predicted languages in the test data set. Because we do not know what value for k may be the best choice, we just run the training and testing with different values for k in a for loop:

def train_knn(x, y, k):

'''Returns the trained k nearest neighbors classifier

train_knn(x, y, k) -> sklearn.neighbors.KNeighborsClassifier

'''

clf = KNeighborsClassifier(k)

clf.fit(x, y)

return clf

def test_knn(clf, X, Y):

'''Tests a given classifier with a testset and return result

text_knn(clf, X, Y) -> float

'''

predictions = clf.predict(X)

ratio_correct = len([i for i in range(len(Y)) if Y[i] == predictions[i]]) / len(Y)

return ratio_correct

print('''k\tPercentage of correctly predicted language

__________________________________________________''')

for i in range(1, 16):

clf = train_knn(x, y, i)

ratio_correct = test_knn(clf, X, Y)

print(str(i) + '\t' + str(round(ratio_correct * 100, 3)) + '%')

k Percentage of correctly predicted language

__________________________________________________

1 97.548%

2 97.38%

3 98.256%

4 98.132%

5 98.221%

6 98.203%

7 98.327%

8 98.247%

9 98.371%

10 98.345%

11 98.327%

12 98.3%

13 98.256%

14 98.274%

15 98.309%

As you can see in the output the reliability of the language classifier is generally very high: It starts at about 97.5% for k = 1, increases for with increasing values of k until it reaches a maximum level of about 98.5% at k ≈ 10.

Using the Classifier to predict languages of texts

Now that we have trained and tested the classifier we want to use it to predict the language of example texts. To do that we need two more functions, shown in the following piece of code. The first one extracts the nessesary features from the sample text and predict_lang() predicts the language of a the texts:

def extract_features(text, features):

'''Extracts all alphabetic characters and add their ratios as feature

extract_features(text, features) -> np.array

'''

textlen = len(text)

ratios = []

text = text.lower()

for feature in features:

ratios.append(text.count(feature) / textlen)

return np.array(ratios)

def predict_lang(text, clf=clf):

'''Predicts the language of a given text and classifier

predict_lang(text, clf) -> str

'''

extracted_features = extract_features(text, features)

return clf.predict(np.array(np.array([extracted_features])))[0]

text_sample = df.sample(10)['text']

for example_text in text_sample:

print('%-20s' % predict_lang(example_text, clf) + '\t' + example_text[:60] + '...')

Italian Auspico che i progetti riguardanti i programmi possano contr...

English When that time comes , when we have used up all our resource...

Portuguese Creio que o Parlamento protesta muitas vezes contra este mét...

Spanish Sobre la base de esta posición , me parece que se puede enco...

Dutch Ik voel mij daardoor aangemoedigd omdat ik een brede consens...

Spanish Señor Presidente , Señorías , antes que nada , quisiera pron...

Italian Ricordo altresì , signora Presidente , che durante la preced...

Swedish Betänkande ( A5-0107 / 1999 ) av Berend för utskottet för re...

English This responsibility cannot only be borne by the Commissioner...

Portuguese A nossa leitura comum é que esse partido tem uma posição man...

With this classifier it is now also possible to predict the language of the randomized example snipplet from the introduction (which is acutally created from the first paragraph of this article):

example_text = "ogldviisnntmeyoiiesettpetorotrcitglloeleiengehorntsnraviedeenltseaecithooheinsnstiofwtoienaoaeefiitaeeauobmeeetdmsflteightnttxipecnlgtetgteyhatncdisaceahrfomseehmsindrlttdthoaranthahdgasaebeaturoehtrnnanftxndaeeiposttmnhgttagtsheitistrrcudf"

predict_lang(example_text)

'English'

The KNN classifier of sklearn also offers the possibility to predict the propability with which a given classification is made. While the probability distribution for a specific language is relativly clear for long sample texts it decreases noticeably the shorter the texts are.

def dict_invert(dictionary):

''' Inverts keys and values of a dictionary

dict_invert(dictionary) -> collections.defaultdict(list)

'''

inverse_dict = defaultdict(list)

for key, value in dictionary.items():

inverse_dict[value].append(key)

return inverse_dict

def get_propabilities(text, features=features):

'''Prints the probability for every language of a given text

get_propabilities(text, features)

'''

results = clf.predict_proba(extract_features(text, features=features).reshape(1, -1))

for result in zip(clf.classes_, results[0]):

print('%-20s' % result[0] + '%7s %%' % str(round(float(100 * result[1]), 4)))

example_text = 'ogldviisnntmeyoiiesettpetorotrcitglloeleiengehorntsnraviedeenltseaecithooheinsnstiofwtoienaoaeefiitaeeauobmeeetdmsflteightnttxipecnlgtetgteyhatncdisaceahrfomseehmsindrlttdthoaranthahdgasaebeaturoehtrnnanftxndaeeiposttmnhgttagtsheitistrrcudf'

print(example_text)

get_propabilities(example_text + '\n')

print('\n')

example_text2 = 'Dies ist ein kurzer Beispielsatz.'

print(example_text2)

get_propabilities(example_text2 + '\n')

ogldviisnntmeyoiiesettpetorotrcitglloeleiengehorntsnraviedeenltseaecithooheinsnstiofwtoienaoaeefiitaeeauobmeeetdmsflteightnttxipecnlgtetgteyhatncdisaceahrfomseehmsindrlttdthoaranthahdgasaebeaturoehtrnnanftxndaeeiposttmnhgttagtsheitistrrcudf

Danish 0.0 %

Dutch 0.0 %

English 100.0 %

Finnish 0.0 %

French 0.0 %

German 0.0 %

Italian 0.0 %

Portuguese 0.0 %

Spanish 0.0 %

Swedish 0.0 %

Dies ist ein kurzer Beispielsatz.

Danish 0.0 %

Dutch 0.0 %

English 0.0 %

Finnish 0.0 %

French 18.1818 %

German 72.7273 %

Italian 9.0909 %

Portuguese 0.0 %

Spanish 0.0 %

Swedish 0.0 %

Background and Insights

Why does a relative simple model like counting letters acutally work? Every language has a specific pattern of letter frequencies which can be used as a kind of fingerprint: While there are almost no y‘s in the german language this letter is quite common in english. In french the letter k is not very common because it is replaced with q in most cases.

For a better understanding look at the output of the following code snipplet where only three letters already lead to a noticable form of clustering:

projection='3d')

legend = []

X, Y, Z = 'e', 'g', 'h'

def iterlog(ln):

retvals = []

for n in ln:

try:

retvals.append(np.log(n))

except:

retvals.append(None)

return retvals

for X in ['t']:

ax = plt.axes(projection='3d')

ax.xy_viewLim.intervalx = [-3.5, -2]

legend = []

for lang in [l for l in df.groupby('lang') if l[0] in {'German', 'English', 'Finnish', 'French', 'Danish'}]:

sample = lang[1].sample(4000)

legend.append(lang[0])

ax.scatter3D(iterlog(sample[X]), iterlog(sample[Y]), iterlog(sample[Z]))

ax.set_title('log(10) of the Relativ Frequencies of "' + X.upper() + "', '" + Y.upper() + '" and "' + Z.upper() + '"\n\n')

ax.set_xlabel(X.upper())

ax.set_ylabel(Y.upper())

ax.set_zlabel(Z.upper())

plt.legend(legend)

plt.show()

Even though every single letter frequency by itself is not a very reliable indicator, the set of frequencies of all present letters in a text is a quite good evidence because it will more or less represent the letter frequency fingerprint of the given language. Since it is quite hard to imagine or visualize the above plot in more than three dimensions, I used a little trick which shows that every language has its own typical fingerprint of letter frequencies:

legend = []

fig = plt.figure(figsize=(15, 10))

plt.axes(yscale='log')

langs = defaultdict(list)

for lang in [l for l in df.groupby('lang') if l[0] in set(df['lang'])]:

for feature in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz':

langs[lang[0]].append(lang[1][feature].mean())

mean_frequencies = {feature:df[feature].mean() for feature in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'}

for i in langs.items():

legend.append(i[0])

j = np.array(i[1]) / np.array([mean_frequencies[c] for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'])

plt.plot([c for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'], j)

plt.title('Log. of relative Frequencies compared to the mean Frequency in all texts')

plt.xlabel('Letters')

plt.ylabel('(log(Lang. Frequencies / Mean Frequency)')

plt.legend(legend)

plt.grid()

plt.show()

What more?

Beside the fact, that letter frequencies alone, allow us to predict the language of every example text (at least in the 10 languages with latin alphabet we trained for) with almost complete certancy there is even more information hidden in the set of sample texts.

As you might know, most languages in europe belong to either the romanian or the indogermanic language family (which is actually because the romans conquered only half of europe). The border between them could be located in belgium, between france and germany and in swiss. West of this border the romanian languages, which originate from latin, are still spoken, like spanish, portouguese and french. In the middle and northern part of europe the indogermanic languages are very common like german, dutch, swedish ect. If we plot the analysed languages with a different colour sheme this border gets quite clear and allows us to take a look back in history that tells us where our languages originate from:

legend = []

fig = plt.figure(figsize=(15, 10))

plt.axes(yscale='linear')

langs = defaultdict(list)

for lang in [l for l in df.groupby('lang') if l[0] in {'German', 'English', 'French', 'Spanish', 'Portuguese', 'Dutch', 'Swedish', 'Danish', 'Italian'}]:

for feature in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz':

langs[lang[0]].append(lang[1][feature].mean())

colordict = {l[0]:l[1] for l in zip([lang for lang in langs], ['brown', 'tomato', 'orangered',

'green', 'red', 'forestgreen', 'limegreen',

'darkgreen', 'darkred'])}

mean_frequencies = {feature:df[feature].mean() for feature in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'}

for i in langs.items():

legend.append(i[0])

j = np.array(i[1]) / np.array([mean_frequencies[c] for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'])

plt.plot([c for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'], j, color=colordict[i[0]])

# plt.plot([c for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'], i[1], color=colordict[i[0]])

plt.title('Log. of relative Frequencies compared to the mean Frequency in all texts')

plt.xlabel('Letters')

plt.ylabel('(log(Lang. Frequencies / Mean Frequency)')

plt.legend(legend)

plt.grid()

plt.show()

As you can see the more common letters, especially the vocals like a, e, i, o and u have almost the same frequency in all of this languages. Far more interesting are letters like q, k, c and w: While k is quite common in all of the indogermanic languages it is quite rare in romanic languages because the same sound is written with the letters q or c.
As a result it could be said, that even “boring” sets of data (just give it a try and read all the texts of the protocolls of the EU parliament…) could contain quite interesting patterns which – in this case – allows us to predict quite precisely which language a given text sample is written in, without the need of any translation program or to speak the languages. And as an interesting side effect, where certain things in history happend (or not happend): After two thousand years have passed, modern machine learning techniques could easily uncover this history because even though all these different languages developed, they still have a set of hidden but common patterns that since than stayed the same.

Einstieg in Natural Language Processing – Teil 2: Preprocessing von Rohtext mit Python

October 18, 2018/in Business Analytics, Business Intelligence, Customer Analytics, Data Engineering, Data Mining, Data Science, Data Science Hack, Machine Learning, Main Category, Natural Language Processing, Python, Python, Text Mining, Tool Introduction, Tools, Tutorial, Visualization/by Christopher Kipp

Dies ist der zweite Artikel der Artikelserie Einstieg in Natural Language Processing.

In diesem Artikel wird das so genannte Preprocessing von Texten behandelt, also Schritte die im Bereich des NLP in der Regel vor eigentlichen Textanalyse durchgeführt werden.

Tokenizing

Um eingelesenen Rohtext in ein Format zu überführen, welches in der späteren Analyse einfacher ausgewertet werden kann, sind eine ganze Reihe von Schritten notwendig. Ganz allgemein besteht der erste Schritt darin, den auszuwertenden Text in einzelne kurze Abschnitte – so genannte Tokens – zu zerlegen (außer man bastelt sich völlig eigene Analyseansätze, wie zum Beispiel eine Spracherkennung anhand von Buchstabenhäufigkeiten ect.).

Was genau ein Token ist, hängt vom verwendeten Tokenizer ab. So bringt NLTK bereits standardmäßig unter anderem BlankLine-, Line-, Sentence-, Word-, Wordpunkt- und SpaceTokenizer mit, welche Text entsprechend in Paragraphen, Zeilen, Sätze, Worte usw. aufsplitten. Weiterhin ist mit dem RegexTokenizer ein Tool vorhanden, mit welchem durch Wahl eines entsprechenden Regulären Ausdrucks beliebig komplexe eigene Tokenizer erstellt werden können.

Üblicherweise wird ein Text (evtl. nach vorherigem Aufsplitten in Paragraphen oder Sätze) schließlich in einzelne Worte und Interpunktionen (Satzzeichen) aufgeteilt. Hierfür kann, wie im folgenden Beispiel z. B. der WordTokenizer oder die diesem entsprechende Funktion word_tokenize() verwendet werden.

rawtext = 'This is a short example text that needs to be cleaned.'

tokens = nltk.word_tokenize(rawtext)

tokens

['This', 'is', 'a', 'short', 'example', 'text', 'that', 'needs', 'to', 'be', 'cleaned', '.']

Stemming & Lemmatizing

Andere häufig durchgeführte Schritte sind Stemming sowie Lemmatizing. Hierbei werden die Suffixe der einzelnen Tokens des Textes mit Hilfe eines Stemmers in eine Form überführt, welche nur den Wortstamm zurücklässt. Dies hat den Zweck verschiedene grammatikalische Formen des selben Wortes (welche sich oft in ihrer Endung unterscheiden (ich gehe, du gehst, er geht, wir gehen, …) ununterscheidbar zu machen. Diese würden sonst als mehrere unabhängige Worte in die darauf folgende Analyse eingehen.

Neben bereits fertigen Stemmern bietet NLTK auch für diesen Schritt die Möglichkeit sich eigene Stemmer zu programmieren. Da verschiedene Stemmer Suffixe nach unterschiedlichen Regeln entfernen, sind nur die Wortstämme miteinander vergleichbar, welche mit dem selben Stemmer generiert wurden!

Im forlgenden Beispiel werden verschiedene vordefinierte Stemmer aus dem Paket NLTK auf den bereits oben verwendeten Beispielsatz angewendet und die Ergebnisse der gestemmten Tokens in einer Art einfachen Tabelle ausgegeben:

# Ready-to-use stemmers in nltk

porter = nltk.PorterStemmer()

lancaster = nltk.LancasterStemmer()

snowball = nltk.SnowballStemmer(language='english')

# Printing a table to compare the different stemmers

header = 'Token\tPorter\tLancas.\tSnowball'

print(header + '\n' + len(header) * '-')

for token in tokens:

print('\t'.join([token, porter.stem(token), lancaster.stem(token), snowball.stem(token)]))

Token Porter Lancas. Snowball

-----------------------------

This thi thi this

is is is is

a a a a

short short short short

example exampl exampl exampl

text text text text

that that that that

needs need nee need

to to to to

be be be be

cleaned clean cle clean

. . . .

Sehr ähnlich den Stemmern arbeiten Lemmatizer: Auch ihre Aufgabe ist es aus verschiedenen Formen eines Wortes die jeweilige Grundform zu bilden. Im Unterschied zu den Stemmern ist das Lemma eines Wortes jedoch klar als dessen Grundform definiert.

from nltk.stem import WordNetLemmatizer

lemmatizer = WordNetLemmatizer()

lemmas = [lemmatizer.lemmatize(t) for t in tokens()]

Vokabular

Auch das Vokabular, also die Menge aller verschiedenen Worte eines Textes, ist eine informative Kennzahl. Bezieht man die Größe des Vokabulars eines Textes auf seine gesamte Anzahl verwendeter Worte, so lassen sich hiermit Aussagen zu der Diversität des Textes machen.

Außerdem kann das auftreten bestimmter Worte später bei der automatischen Einordnung in Kategorien wichtig werden: Will man beispielsweise Nachrichtenmeldungen nach Themen kategorisieren und in einem Text tritt das Wort „DAX“ auf, so ist es deutlich wahrscheinlicher, dass es sich bei diesem Text um eine Meldung aus dem Finanzbereich handelt, als z. B. um das „Kochrezept des Tages“.

Dies mag auf den ersten Blick trivial erscheinen, allerdings können auch mit einfachen Modellen, wie dem so genannten „Bag-of-Words-Modell“, welches nur die Anzahl des Auftretens von Worten prüft, bereits eine Vielzahl von Informationen aus Texten gewonnen werden.

Das reine Vokabular eines Textes, welcher in der Variable “rawtext” gespeichert ist, kann wie folgt in der Variable “vocab” gespeichert werden. Auf die Ausgabe wurde in diesem Fall verzichtet, da diese im Falle des oben als Beispiel gewählten Satzes den einzelnen Tokens entspricht, da kein Wort öfter als ein Mal vorkommt.

from nltk import wordpunct_tokenizer

from nltk.stem import WordNetLemmatizer

lemma = WordNetLemmatizer()

vocab = set([WordNetLemmatizer().lemmatize(t) for t in wordpunct_tokenize(text.lower())])

Stopwords

Unter Stopwords werden Worte verstanden, welche zwar sehr häufig vorkommen, jedoch nur wenig Information zu einem Text beitragen. Beispiele in der beutschen Sprache sind: der, und, aber, mit, …

Sowohl NLTK als auch cpaCy bringen vorgefertigte Stopwordsets mit.

from nltk.corpus import stopwords

stoplist = stopwords.words('english')

stopset = set(stopwords.words('english'))

[t for t in tokens if not t in stoplist]

['This', 'short', 'example', 'text', 'needs', 'cleaned', '.']

Vorsicht: NLTK besitzt eine Stopwordliste, welche erst in ein Set umgewandelt werden sollte um die lookup-Zeiten kurz zu halten – schließlich muss jedes einzelne Token des Textes auf das vorhanden sein in der Stopworditerable getestet werden!

1 2	%timeit [w for w in tokens if not w in stopset] # 1.11 ms %timeit [w for w in tokens if not w in stoplist] # 26.6 ms

POS-Tagging

POS-Tagging steht für „Part of Speech Tagging“ und entspricht ungefähr den Aufgaben, die man noch aus dem Deutschunterricht kennt: „Unterstreiche alle Subjekte rot, alle Objekte blau…“. Wichtig ist diese Art von Tagging insbesondere, wenn man später tatsächlich strukturiert Informationen aus dem Text extrahieren möchte, da man hierfür wissen muss wer oder was als Subjekt mit wem oder was als Objekt interagiert.

Obwohl genau die selben Worte vorkommen, bedeutet der Satz „Die Katze frisst die Maus.“ etwas anderes als „Die Maus frisst die Katze.“, da hier Subjekt und Objekt aufgrund ihrer Reihenfolge vertauscht sind (Stichwort: Subjekt – Prädikat – Objekt ).

Weniger wichtig ist dieser Schritt bei der Kategorisierung von Dokumenten. Insbesondere bei dem bereits oben erwähnten Bag-of-Words-Modell, fließen POS-Tags überhaupt nicht mit ein.

Und weil es so schön einfach ist: Die obigen Schritte mit spaCy

Die obigen Methoden und Arbeitsschritte, welche Texte die in natürlicher Sprache geschrieben sind, allgemein computerzugänglicher und einfacher auswertbar machen, können beliebig genau den eigenen Wünschen angepasst, einzeln mit dem Paket NLTK durchgeführt werden. Dies zumindest einmal gemacht zu haben, erweitert das Verständnis für die funktionsweise einzelnen Schritte und insbesondere deren manchmal etwas versteckten Komplexität. (Wie muss beispielsweise ein Tokenizer funktionieren der den Satz “Schwierig ist z. B. dieser Satz.” korrekt in nur einen Satz aufspaltet, anstatt ihn an jedem Punkt welcher an einem Wortende auftritt in insgesamt vier Sätze aufzuspalten, von denen einer nur aus einem Leerzeichen besteht?) Hier soll nun aber, weil es so schön einfach ist, auch das analoge Vorgehen mit dem Paket spaCy beschrieben werden:

import spacy

nlp = spacy.load('en')

doc = nlp(rawtext)

Dieser kurze Codeabschnitt liest den an spaCy übergebenen Rohtext in ein spaCy Doc-Object ein und führt dabei automatisch bereits alle oben beschriebenen sowie noch eine Reihe weitere Operationen aus. So stehen neben dem immer noch vollständig gespeicherten Originaltext, die einzelnen Sätze, Worte, Lemmas, Noun-Chunks, Named Entities, Part-of-Speech-Tags, ect. direkt zur Verfügung und können.über die Methoden des Doc-Objektes erreicht werden. Des weiteren liegen auch verschiedene weitere Objekte wie beispielsweise Vektoren zur Bestimmung von Dokumentenähnlichkeiten bereits fertig vor.

Die Folgende Übersicht soll eine kurze (aber noch lange nicht vollständige) Übersicht über die automatisch von spaCy generierten Objekte und Methoden zur Textanalyse geben:

# Textabschnitte

doc.text # Originaltext

sents = doc.sents # Sätze des Dokuments

tokens = [token for token in doc] # Tokens/Worte des Dokuments

parags = doc.text_with_ws.split('\n\n') # Absätze des Dokuments

# Eigenschaften einzelner Tokens

[t.lemma_ for t in doc] # Lemmata der einzelnen Tokens

[t.tag_ for t in doc] # POS-Tags der einzelnen Tokens

# Objekte zur Textanalyse

doc.vocab # Vokabular des Dokuments

doc.sentiment # Sentiment des Dokuments

doc.noun_chunks # NounChunks des Dokuments

entities = [ent for ent in doc.ents] # Named Entities (Persons, Locations, Countrys)

# Objekte zur Dokumentenklassifikation

doc.vector # Vektor

doc.tensor # Tensor

Diese „Vollautomatisierung“ der Vorabschritte zur Textanalyse hat jedoch auch seinen Preis: spaCy geht nicht gerade sparsam mit Ressourcen wie Rechenleistung und Arbeitsspeicher um. Will man einen oder einige Texte untersuchen so ist spaCy oft die einfachste und schnellste Lösung für das Preprocessing. Anders sieht es aber beispielsweise aus, wenn eine bestimmte Analyse wie zum Beispiel die Einteilung in verschiedene Textkategorien auf eine sehr große Anzahl von Texten angewendet werden soll. In diesem Fall, sollte man in Erwägung ziehen auf ressourcenschonendere Alternativen wie zum Beispiel gensim auszuweichen.

Wer beim lesen genau aufgepasst hat, wird festgestellt haben, dass ich im Abschnitt POS-Tagging im Gegensatz zu den anderen Abschnitten auf ein kurzes Codebeispiel verzichtet habe. Dies möchte ich an dieser Stelle nachholen und dabei gleich eine Erweiterung des Pakets spaCy vorstellen: displaCy.

Displacy bietet die Möglichkeit, sich Zusammenhänge und Eigenschaften von Texten wie Named Entities oder eben POS-Tagging graphisch im Browser anzeigen zu lassen.

import spacy

from spacy import displacy

rawtext = 'This is a short example sentence that needs to be cleaned.'

nlp = spacy.load('en')

doc = nlp(rawtext)

displacy.serve(doc, style='dep')

Nach ausführen des obigen Codes erhält man eine Ausgabe die wie folgt aussieht:

1 2	Serving on port 5000... Using the 'dep' visualizer

Nun öffnet man einen Browser und ruft die URL ‘http://127.0.0.1:5000’ auf (Achtung: localhost anstatt der IP funktioniert – warum auch immer – mit displacy nicht). Im Browser sollte nun eine Seite mit einem SVG-Bild geladen werden, welches wie folgt aussieht

Die Abbildung macht deutlich was POS-Tagging genau ist und warum es von Nutzen sein kann wenn man Informationen aus einem Text extrahieren will. Jedem Word (Token) ist eine Wortart zugeordnet und die Beziehung der einzelnen Worte durch Pfeile dargestellt. Dies ermöglicht es dem Computer zum Beispiel in dem Satzteil “der grüne Apfel”, das Adjektiv “grün” auf das Nomen “Apfel” zu beziehen und diesem somit als Eigenschaft zuzuordnen.

Nachdem dieser Artikel wichtige Schritte des Preprocessing von Texten beschrieben hat, geht es im nächsten Artikel darum was man an Texten eigentlich analysieren kann und welche Analysemöglichkeiten die verschiedenen für Python vorhandenen Module bieten.

Einstieg in Natural Language Processing – Teil 1: Natürliche vs. Formale Sprachen

September 24, 2018/in Data Science, Data Science Hack, Natural Language Processing, Python, Python, Text Mining, Tool Introduction, Tools, Tutorial/by Christopher Kipp

Dies ist Artikel 1 von 4 der Artikelserie Einstieg in Natural Language Processing – Artikelserie.

Versuche und erste Ansätze, Maschinen beizubringen menschliche Sprache zu verstehen, gibt es bereits seit den 50er Jahren. Trotz der jahrzehntelangen Forschung und Entwicklung gelingt dies bis heute nicht umfassend. Woran liegt dies?

Um diese Frage zu beantworten, hilft es, sich die Unterschiede zwischen „natürlichen“, also sich selbstständig entwickelnden, typischerweise von Menschen gesprochenen Sprachen und den von Computern interpretieren formalen Sprachen klar zu machen. Formale Sprachen, wie zum Beispiel Python zum Ausführen der Codebeispiele in dieser Artikelserie, HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) zur Darstellung von Webseiten und andere typische Programmier- und Skriptsprachen, sind üblicherweise sehr streng strukturiert.

Alle diese Sprachen weisen eine Reihe von Gemeinsamkeiten auf, welche es Computern einfach machen, sie korrekt zu interpretieren (also den Informationsinhalt zu “verstehen”). Das vermutlich auffälligste Merkmal formaler Sprachen ist eine relativ strikte Syntax, welche (wenn überhaupt) nur geringe Abweichungen von einem Standard erlaubt. Wie penibel die jeweilige Syntax oft einzuhalten ist, wird am ehesten deutlich, wenn diese verletzt wird:

>>> print('Correct Syntax')

Correct Syntax

>>> print{'Wrong Syntax'}

print{'Wrong Syntax'}

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Solche so genannten “Syntax Error” gehören daher zu den häufigsten Fehlern beim Schreiben von Quellcode.

Ganz anders dagegen sieht es in der Kommunikation mit natürlichen Sprachen aus. Zwar fördert falsche Komma-Setzung in der Regel nicht die Leserlichkeit eines Textes, jedoch bleibt dieser in der Regel trotzdem verständlich. Auch macht es keinen Unterschied ob ich sage „Es ist heiß heute.“ oder „Heute ist es heiß.“. Genau wie in der deutschen Sprache funktioniert dieses Beispiel auch im Englischen sowie in anderen natürlichen Sprachen. Insbesondere Spanisch ist ein Beispiel für eine Sprache mit extrem variabler Satzstellung. Jedoch kann in anderen Fällen eine andere Reihenfolge der selben Worte deren Bedeutung auch verändern. So ist „Ist es heute heiß?“ ganz klar eine Frage, obwohl exakt die selben Worte wie in den Beispielsätzen oben vorkommen.

Ein weiterer wichtiger, hiermit verwandter Unterschied ist, dass es bei formalen Sprachen in der Regel einen Ausdruck gibt, welcher eine spezifische Bedeutung besitzt, während es in natürlichen Sprachen oft viele Synonyme gibt, die ein und dieselbe Sache (oder zumindest etwas sehr ähnliches) ausdrücken. Ein wahrer boolscher Wert wird in Python als

True

geschrieben. Es gibt keine andere Möglichkeit, diesen Wert auszudrücken (zumindest nicht ohne irgend eine Art von Operatoren wie das Doppelgleichheitszeichen zu benutzen und damit z. B. “0 == 0” zu schreiben). Anders hingegen zum Beispiel in der Deutschen Sprache: Wahr, richtig, korrekt, stimmt, ja, …

Um einen Vorstellung davon zu bekommen, wie verbreitet Synonyme in natürlichen Sprachen sind, lässt sich die Internetseite https://www.openthesaurus.de verwenden. Beispielshalber findet man dutzende Synonyme für das Wort „schnell“ hier: https://www.openthesaurus.de/synonyme/schnell

Eine weitere große Schwierigkeit, welche in den meisten natürlichen Sprachen und nahezu allen Arten von Texten zu finden ist, stellen verschiedene grammatikalische Formen eines Wortes dar. So sind die Worte bin, wäre, sind, waren, wirst, werden… alles Konjugationen desselben Verbs, nämlich sein. Eine durchaus beeindruckende Übersicht über die verwirrende Vielfalt von Konjugationen dieses kleinen Wörtchens, findet sich unter: https://www.verbformen.de/konjugation/sein.htm.

Dieses Problem wird um so schwerwiegender, da viele Verben, insbesondere die am häufigsten genutzten, sehr unregelmäßige Konjugationsformen besitzen und damit keiner generellen Regel folgen. Daher ist computerintern oft ein Mapping für jede mögliche Konjugationsform bei vielen Verben die einzige Möglichkeit, an die Grundform zu kommen (mehr dazu in Teil 3 dieser Artikelserie).

Die Liste der sprachlichen Schwierigkeiten beim computergestützten Auswerten natürlicher Sprache ließe sich an diesem Punkt noch beliebig weiter fortsetzen:

Rechtschreibfehler
falsche Grammatik
Smileys
der „Substantivverkettungswahn“ im Deutschen
mehrdeutige Worte und Abkürzungen
abwegige Redewendungen (z. B. “ins Gras beißen”)
Ironie
und, und, und …

Ob und welche Rolle jede dieser Schwierigkeiten im einzelnen spielt, hängt natürlich sehr stark von den jeweiligen Texten ab und kann nicht pauschalisiert werden – ein typischer Chatverlauf wird ganz andere Probleme bereithalten als ein Wikipedia-Artikel. Wie man einige dieser Probleme in der Praxis vereinfachen oder sogar lösen kann und welche Ansätze und Methoden zur Verfügung stehen und regelmäßig zur Anwendung kommen wird im nächsten Teil dieser Artikelserie an praktischen Codebeispielen genauer unter die Lupe genommen.

NLTK vs. Spacy – Eine kurze Übersicht

Möchte man einen (oder auch einige) Text(e) mit den Methoden des natural language processings untersuchen um die darin verwendete Sprache auswerten oder nach bestimmten Informationen suchen, so sind insbesondere die Pakete NLTK und spaCy zu empfehlen (bei sehr vielen Texten sieht das schon wieder anders aus und wird am Ende der Artikelserie mit dem Paket gensim vorgestellt); beide bieten eine unglaubliche Vielzahl von Analysemöglichkeiten, vorgefertigten Wortsets, vortrainierte Stemmer und Lemmatiser, POS Tagger und, und, und…

Ist man vor allem an den Ergebnissen der Analyse selbst interessiert, so bietet sich spaCy an, da hier bereits mit wenigen Zeilen Code viele interessante Informationen generiert werden können.

Wer dagegen gerne selber bastelt oder wissen möchte wie die einzelnen Tools und Teilschritte genau funktionieren oder sich seine eigenen Stemmer, Tagger ect. trainieren will, ist vermutlich mit NLTK besser beraten. Zwar ist hier oft mehr Quellcode für das gleiche Ergebnis notwendig, allerdings kann das Preprocessing der Texte hierbei relativ einfach exakt den eigenen Vorstellungen angepasst werden. Zudem bietet NLTK eine Vielzahl von Beispieltexten und bereits fertig getagte Daten, mit welchen eigene Tagger trainiert und getestet werden können.

Tag Archive for: Natural Language Processing

1 Multi-head attention mechanism

2 Calculating attentions and reweighting “values”

3 Scaled-dot product

4 Tensorflow implementation of multi-head attention

[References]

1 Preface

2 Tokens and word embedding

3 Language model

Appendix

[References]

1. Preface

2. Why LSTM?

3. How to display LSTM

4. Forward propagation of LSTM in “electronic circuit type”

5. Space Odyssey type

Quellen:

Mandy Gu: „Spam or Ham: Introduction to Natural Language Processing Part 2“ https://towardsdatascience.com/spam-or-ham-introduction-to-natural-language-processing-part-2-a0093185aebd

Christopher D. Manning, Prabhakar Raghavan & Hinrich Schütze: „Introduction to Information Retrieval”, Cambridge University Press, https://nlp.stanford.edu/IR-book/

Hobson Lane, Cole Howard, Hannes Max Hapke: „Natural Language Processing in Action. Understanding, analyzing, and generating text with Python.” Manning Shelter Island

Train and Test

Using the Classifier to predict languages of texts

Background and Insights

What more?

Tokenizing

Stemming & Lemmatizing

Vokabular

Stopwords

POS-Tagging

Und weil es so schön einfach ist: Die obigen Schritte mit spaCy

NLTK vs. Spacy – Eine kurze Übersicht

Interesting links

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